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Related Concept Videos

The Carbon Cycle01:14

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is the basis of all organic matter on Earth, and is recycled through the ecosystem in two primary processes: one in which carbon is exchanged among living organisms, and one in which carbon is cycled over long periods of time through fossilized organic remains, weathering of rocks, and volcanic activity. Human activities, including increased agricultural practices and the burning of fossil fuels, has greatly affected the balance of the natural carbon cycle.
Global Climate Change01:50

Global Climate Change

Throughout its ~4.5 billion year history, the Earth has experienced periods of warming and cooling. However, the current drastic increase in global temperatures is well outside of the Earth’s cyclic norms, and evidence for human-caused global climate change is compelling. Paleoclimatology, the study of ancient climate conditions, provides ample evidence for human-caused global climate change by comparing recent conditions with those in the past.
Conditions on Early Earth02:06

Conditions on Early Earth

Around 4 billion years ago, oceans began to condense on earth while volcanic eruptions released nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and hydrogen into the primordial atmosphere. However, organisms with the characteristics of life were not initially present on earth. Scientists have used experimentation to determine how organisms evolved that could grow, reproduce, and maintain an internal environment.
Conditions on Early Earth02:06

Conditions on Early Earth

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Radiation: Applications01:17

Radiation: Applications

The average temperature of Earth is the subject of much current discussion. Earth is in radiative contact with both the Sun and dark space; it receives almost all its energy from the radiation of the Sun and reflects some of it into outer space. Dark space is very cold, about 3 K, so Earth radiates energy into it. For instance, heat transfer occurs from soil and grasses, the rate of which can be so rapid that frost can occur on clear summer evenings, even in warm latitudes.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 17, 2026

Simulation of the Planetary Interior Differentiation Processes in the Laboratory
06:04

Simulation of the Planetary Interior Differentiation Processes in the Laboratory

Published on: November 15, 2013

The global topography of Mars and implications for surface evolution.

D E Smith1, M T Zuber, S C Solomon

  • 1Earth Sciences Directorate, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, MD 20771, USA. dsmith@tharsis.gsfc.nasa.gov

Science (New York, N.Y.)
|May 29, 1999
PubMed
Summary

A high-accuracy topographic map of Mars reveals a low northern hemisphere, the Tharsis volcanic province, and the Hellas impact basin. This data informs our understanding of Martian geological history and water inventory.

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Area of Science:

  • Planetary Science
  • Geology
  • Geophysics

Background:

  • Understanding Martian topography is key to deciphering its geological evolution.
  • Previous topographic data lacked the resolution for detailed analysis of major features.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To generate a high-accuracy global topographic map of Mars.
  • To identify and characterize dominant topographic features and their origins.

Main Methods:

  • Utilized data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA).
  • Analyzed global elevation data to create a comprehensive topographical map.

Main Results:

  • Identified a low northern hemisphere, likely shaped by internal mechanisms.
  • Characterized the Tharsis volcanic province with two broad rises.
  • Mapped the Hellas impact basin and its contribution to southern hemisphere elevation.
  • Located three major drainage centers, with northern lowlands being the largest.
  • Estimated the Martian polar cap water volume (3.2-4.7 million cubic kilometers).

Conclusions:

  • The Martian topography is characterized by distinct large-scale features.
  • Internal processes significantly influenced the northern hemisphere's topography.
  • The Hellas basin played a role in shaping hemispheric elevations.
  • The polar caps represent a significant, albeit limited, surface water reservoir.