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Related Concept Videos

Longitudinal Research02:20

Longitudinal Research

Sometimes we want to see how people change over time, as in studies of human development and lifespan. When we test the same group of individuals repeatedly over an extended period of time, we are conducting longitudinal research. Longitudinal research is a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time. For example, we may survey a group of individuals about their dietary habits at age 20, retest them a decade later at age 30, and then again...
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Confounding in statistical epidemiology represents a pivotal challenge, referring to the distortion in the perceived relationship between an exposure and an outcome due to the presence of a third variable, known as a confounder. This variable is associated with both the exposure and the outcome but is not a direct link in their causal chain. Its presence can lead to erroneous interpretations of the exposure's effect, either exaggerating or underestimating the true association. This phenomenon...
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Confounding is a critical issue in epidemiological studies, often leading to misleading conclusions about associations between exposures and outcomes. It occurs when the relationship between the exposure and the outcome is mixed with the effects of other factors that influence the outcome. Given that, addressing confounding is of high importance for drawing accurate inferences in research.
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Updated: Jul 7, 2026

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making
11:51

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Published on: March 2, 2011

Challenges in economic outcomes research.

J R Cook1

  • 1Merck Research Laboratories, Blue Bell, PA 19422, USA. john_cook@merck.com

Hepatology (Baltimore, Md.)
|July 1, 1999
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Economic evaluations assess new therapy value amid healthcare cost pressures. Awareness of design, analysis, and interpretation challenges is crucial for reviewers evaluating these health economic assessments.

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Area of Science:

  • Health Economics
  • Health Services Research

Background:

  • Healthcare expenditures are under pressure, increasing the need for economic evaluations.
  • Existing guidelines for economic evaluations exist, but a universal methodology is unlikely.
  • Readers and reviewers must understand potential challenges in health economic assessments.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To raise awareness of challenges in designing, analyzing, and interpreting economic evaluations.
  • To provide insights for navigating the complexities of health economic assessments.

Main Methods:

  • This article discusses potential challenges rather than providing a comprehensive list.
  • Focuses on awareness and understanding of difficulties in economic evaluations.

Main Results:

  • Economic evaluations are essential for assessing the value of new therapies.
  • Standardization of methodology for economic evaluations is improbable.
  • Understanding challenges in design, analysis, and interpretation is critical for accurate assessment.

Conclusions:

  • Reviewers need to be cognizant of the inherent challenges in economic evaluations.
  • Awareness of these challenges improves the critical appraisal of health economic studies.
  • Further attention to methodological challenges will enhance the utility of economic evaluations in healthcare decision-making.