Expression, localization, and activity of tissue factor pathway inhibitor in normal and atherosclerotic human vessels

Tissue factor (TF) pathway inhibitor (TFPI) is the major downregulator of the procoagulant activity of the TF-factor VIIa (FVIIa) complex (TF. FVII). The active TF present in the atherosclerotic vessel wall is proposed to be responsible for the major complication of primary atherosclerosis, namely, acute thrombosis after plaque rupture, but our knowledge of the sites of TFPI expression in relation to TF remains fragmentary. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression, localization, and activity of TFPI and its relation to the activity and distribution of TF in the normal and atherosclerotic vessel wall. We applied a novel approach in which serial cross sections of human vascular segments were used to perform a complete set of assays: immunolabeling for TFPI and/or TF, in situ hybridization for the expression of TFPI mRNA, ELISA for the determination of TFPI antigen, and functional assay for the activity of TFPI and TF. In healthy vessels, TFPI protein and mRNA are present in luminal and microvascular endothelial cells (ECs) and in the medial smooth muscle cells (SMCs). In atherosclerotic vessels, TFPI protein and mRNA frequently colocalized with TF in ECs overlying the plaque and in microvessels, as well as in the medial and neointimal SMCs, and in macrophages and T cells in areas surrounding the necrotic core. At the ultrastructural level, immunogold electron microscopy confirmed the localization of TFPI in ECs, macrophages/foam cells, and SMCs. In ECs and SMCs, the gold particles decorated the plasmalemma proper and the caveolae. ELISA on cross sections revealed that atherosclerotic tissues contain more TFPI than do the healthy vessels. TFPI was functionally active against TF. FVIIa-induced coagulation, and its activity was higher in those tissues that display less TF. The largest amount of TFPI and TF were detected in complicated arterial plaques. By immunofluorescence, TFPI colocalized with platelet- and fibrin-rich areas within the organized thrombi. Atherosclerotic vessel sections promote activation of factor X, which is dependent on the presence of TF and enhanced by preincubation of the sections with anti-TFPI IgG. Taken altogether, our results suggest that TFPI is largely expressed in the normal vessel wall and enhanced in the atherosclerotic vessel, in a manner suggesting a significant role of TFPI in the regulation of TF activity.