Osteoporosis. Pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment in older adults

Osteoporosis is a major cause of disability and excess mortality in older men and women. Hip fracture incidence accelerates approximately 10 years after menopause in women and after age 70 in men. Approximately 1 million Americans suffer fragility fractures each year at a cost of over 14 billion dollars. The disability, mortality, and cost of hip and vertebral fractures are substantial in the rapidly growing, aging population so that prevention of osteoporosis is a major public health concern. BMD is used to make the diagnosis of osteoporosis before incident fracture and predict fracture risk. Recommendations for treatment and prevention of osteoporosis based on BMD score have been published by the World Health Organization and the National Osteoporosis Foundation. In a process that continues throughout life, bone repairs itself by the coupled action of bone resorption followed by bone formation, sometimes referred to as bone turnover. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts are the primary cells involved in bone formation and resorption, respectively. The process of bone turnover is regulated by hormones, such as PIH and local factors such as IL-1 and prostaglandins. Following attainment of peak bone mass at age 25, bone loss begins, accelerates in women at menopause and slows again but continues into advanced years at a rate of 1% to 2% per year, similar to premenopausal bone loss rate. The leading theories of the mechanism of bone loss in older individuals is calcium deficiency leading to secondary hyperparathyroidism and sex hormone deficiency. Risk factors such as age, gender, ethnic background, smoking, exercise, and nutrition, and medical conditions associated with osteoporosis should be evaluated and modified when possible to prevent further bone loss. Osteoporosis treatment and prevention include weight-bearing exercise, calcium and vitamin D supplementation, estrogen replacement, bisphosphonates, selective estrogen receptor antagonists, and calcitonin. Although there is no currently approved treatment for osteoporosis in men, many of the treatments approved for osteoporosis in women hold promise to be beneficial in men.