Antimicrobial resistance mechanisms: what's hot and what's not in respiratory pathogens

Community respiratory tract pathogens comprise Streptococcus pneumoniae, Haemophilus influenzae, Moraxella catarrhalis, and a few other select, but less frequent, species such as atypical bacteria, staphylococci, and some gram-negative organisms. In addition to an array of virulence factors, these bacteria have also developed a propensity to withstand a range of antimicrobial agents. These resistance mechanisms occur as either target site or antibiotic modifications or antibiotic transportation changes (prevention of cell entry or agent efflux). The genetic coding for these changes can be transmitted to progeny every 20 minutes or can be acquired from the normal flora via transformation. Presently, it is this acquisition of naked DNA by pneumococci that is a "hot" topic and the realization that unless antimicrobials are used more thoughtfully, then new agents can be rapidly rendered redundant. Other potential, but as yet unfounded, resistance scenarios include the acquisition of extended spectrum beta-lactamases by H. influenzae and the development of ribosomal changes to obviate the ketolides and oxazolidinones. To prevent the continued escalation of antimicrobial resistance, new approaches to antimicrobials must be implemented soon.