Can nonliving nasal vaccines be made to work?

Nasal vaccines consisting of nonliving particulate formulations can induce immune responses of importance for protection against infection. The most promising results have been obtained with vaccines against influenza, pertussis and group B meningococcal disease. So far, however, the results do not challenge the standing of corresponding injectable vaccines, although results of experiments in animals do indicate that effective nonliving nasal vaccines may soon be developed. This will depend on refined immunization schedules to benefit from immunological memory and on formulations to make the vaccines more accessible to the immune system by way of mucosal adjuvants or immune modulators.