Three-dimensional model of the feline hindlimb
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Updated: Aug 24, 2026

Construction of a Realistic, Whole-Body, Three-Dimensional Equine Skeletal Model using Computed Tomography Data
Published on: February 25, 2021
Thomas J Burkholder1, T Richard Nichols
1School of Applied Physiology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, 30332-0356, USA. thomas.burkholder@ap.gatech.edu
Abstract:
This article describes a three-dimensional musculoskeletal model of the feline hindlimb based on digitized musculoskeletal anatomy. The model consists of seven degrees of freedom: three at the hip and two each at the knee and ankle. Lines of action and via points for 32 major muscles of the limb are described. Interspecimen variability of muscle paths was surprisingly low; most via points displayed a scatter of only a few millimeters. Joint axes identified by mechanical techniques as noncoincident and nonorthogonal were further honed to yield moment arms consistent with previous reports. Interspecimen variability in joint axes was greater than that of muscle paths and highlights the importance of joint axes in kinematic models. The contribution of specific muscles to the direction of endpoint force generation is discussed.
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