Microbial surfaces investigated using atomic force microscopy

This paper is dedicated to atomic force microscopy (AFM) as a progressive tool for imaging bacterial surfaces and probing their properties. The description of the technique is complemented by the explanation of the method's artifacts typical, in particular, for the imaging of bacterial cells. Sample preparation techniques are summarized in a separate section. Special attention is paid to the differences in imaging of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. Probing of mechanical properties, including elastic modulus, fragility, and adhesion of the cell walls is emphasized. The advantages of AFM in the studies of real-time cellular dynamical processes are illustrated by the experiment with the germination of spores.