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The ciliary structures were first seen in 1647 by Antonie Leeuwenhoek while observing the protozoans. In lower organisms, these appendages are responsible for cell movement, while in higher organisms, these appendages help in the movement of the extracellular fluids within the body cavities.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 17, 2026

Studying the Neural Basis of Adaptive Locomotor Behavior in Insects

Studying the Neural Basis of Adaptive Locomotor Behavior in Insects

Published on: April 13, 2011

Velocity constancy and models for wide-field visual motion detection in insects.

P A Shoemaker¹, D C O'Carroll, A D Straw

¹Tanner Research Inc., 2650 East Foothill Blvd., Pasadena, CA 91107, USA. pat.shoemaker@tanner.com

Biological Cybernetics

|September 10, 2005

Summary

Fly brain neurons exhibit velocity constancy, responding to motion speed but not scene variations. This suggests neural mechanisms in visual processing compensate for contrast differences in natural imagery.

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Last Updated: Jul 17, 2026

Studying the Neural Basis of Adaptive Locomotor Behavior in Insects

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Published on: March 31, 2022

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Computational Neuroscience
Insect Vision

Background:

Tangential neurons in the fly lobula plate respond to visual motion across wide receptive fields.
Existing models of visual motion detection often show contrast dependence.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate velocity constancy in fly tangential neurons.
To identify neural processing mechanisms that achieve contrast invariance in response to natural scenes.

Main Methods:

Intracellular recordings from tangential neurons in intact flies stimulated with moving natural imagery.
Simulations of tangential neuron processing incorporating spatial filtering, adaptation, nonlinearities, and nonlinear spatial integration.

Main Results:

Neural response was dependent on motion speed but nearly invariant to changes in natural scenery.
Simulated models reduced interscene response variance but did not fully replicate biological velocity constancy.

Conclusions:

Fly tangential neurons demonstrate remarkable velocity constancy, suggesting sophisticated neural computations.
Mechanisms like spatial filtering and nonlinear integration contribute to contrast invariance, but biological systems achieve a higher degree of velocity constancy than current models.