Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 18, 2026

Problem-Solving Before Instruction (PS-I): A Protocol for Assessment and Intervention in Students with Different Abilities
Published on: September 11, 2021
Enhancing academic performance by strengthening class-inclusion reasoning
Robert Pasnak1, Willa D Cooke, Charlene Hendricks
1George Mason University, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA. rpasnak@gmu.edu
Abstract:
Class inclusion is an early form of abstract thought that requires logical rather than perceptually based inferences plus an appreciation of part-whole relationships (B. Inhelder and J. Piaget, 1959/1964). The authors randomly assigned 2 groups of first graders who were having academic difficulties to be instructed on either class inclusion or phonics. Results showed a significant linear relation between individual children's mastery of class inclusion and their scores on the Cognitive Abilities Test Form 6 (D. F. Lohman and E. P. Hagen, 2001) verbal and quantitative measures of reasoning. The authors also found a significant linear relation between mastery of class inclusion and improvement in report card marks issued by teachers who were blind to the children's group assignment.
Related Concept Videos
Information Processing Approach
Theory of Attribution II: Kelley's Covariation Theory
Reasoning
Inductive reasoning involves deriving generalizations from specific observations. This type of reasoning helps form beliefs about the world. For example,...
Inductive Reasoning
Critical Thinking II
Deductive Reasoning