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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

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In psychology, reinforcement is a key concept in behavior modification. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments involving rats in what is known as a Skinner box. The rats learned to press a lever to receive food, a primary reinforcer that fulfilled their innate need for nourishment.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 16, 2026

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Combining Behavioral Endocrinology and Experimental Economics: Testosterone and Social Decision Making

Published on: March 2, 2011

How reinforcer type affects choice in economic games.

Edmund Fantino¹, Santino Gaitan, Art Kennelly

¹Department of Psychology, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0109, USA. efantino@ucsd.edu

Behavioural Processes

|March 14, 2007

Summary

Experiments using economic games show that hypothetical rewards differ from real money. However, time off from tedious tasks can be as effective as monetary rewards, offering a cost-effective research method.

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The Joint Effect of Social Comparison and Social Distance on Evaluation of Intertemporal Choice Outcomes in Event-related Potential Studies

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Published on: August 25, 2023

Area of Science:

Behavioral Economics
Decision-Making Science
Experimental Psychology

Background:

Behavioral economists advocate for real money in economic games for generalizable results.
Behavior analysts have reported comparable outcomes with hypothetical and real rewards.
This study reviews existing literature and presents new experimental data on reward types.

Purpose of the Study:

To compare the impact of real versus hypothetical monetary rewards on decision-making in economic games.
To investigate alternative reinforcers, such as time off from a tedious task, in experimental settings.
To assess the methodological implications for conducting economic game research without financial expenditure.

Main Methods:

Review of studies comparing hypothetical and real monetary rewards.
Experiment 1: Utilized the Sharing Game with real and hypothetical rewards.
Experiment 2: Employed the Ultimatum and Dictator Games, comparing real rewards with time off from a tedious task.

Main Results:

Subjects' choices significantly differed based on whether rewards were real or hypothetical in the Sharing Game.
Sharp differences were observed between real and hypothetical rewards in the Ultimatum and Dictator Games.
Time off from a tedious task proved to be a potent reinforcer, comparable to monetary rewards.

Conclusions:

Hypothetical rewards do not consistently yield the same results as real monetary rewards in economic games.
Time off from a tedious task is a viable and powerful alternative reinforcer in experimental research.
Economic game research can be conducted meaningfully without financial costs by utilizing non-monetary rewards like task-related time off.