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Related Concept Videos

Interference and Decay01:16

Interference and Decay

Forgetting is a complex cognitive phenomenon influenced by several factors, among which interference and decay are particularly prominent. These processes explain why individuals often struggle to retrieve specific information from memory, leading to lapses in recall that can be observed in everyday situations.
Interference occurs when competing memories hinder the retrieval of particular information. It can be classified into two types: proactive and retroactive interference. Proactive...
Biological Effects of Radiation02:59

Biological Effects of Radiation

All radioactive nuclides emit high-energy particles or electromagnetic waves. When this radiation encounters living cells, it can cause heating, break chemical bonds, or ionize molecules. The most serious biological damage results when these radioactive emissions fragment or ionize molecules. For example, α and β particles emitted from nuclear decay reactions possess much higher energies than ordinary chemical bond energies. When these particles strike and penetrate matter, they produce ions...
Mutations01:35

Mutations

Mutations are changes in the sequence of DNA. These changes can occur spontaneously or they can be induced by exposure to environmental factors. Mutations can be characterized in a number of different ways: whether and how they alter the amino acid sequence of the protein, whether they occur over a small or large area of DNA, and whether they occur in somatic cells or germline cells.
Chromosomal Alterations Are Large-Scale Mutations
While point mutations are changes in a single nucleotide in...
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Forgetting

Forgetting is an intrinsic aspect of human memory, characterized by the gradual loss or inaccessibility of information over time. Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneering psychologist, extensively studied this phenomenon and formulated the forgetting curve. This curve illustrates that memory loss occurs rapidly immediately after learning and then decelerates over time. Several mechanisms contribute to forgetting, including encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, and interference.
Encoding...
Understanding Memory01:19

Understanding Memory

Memory is the retention of information or experiences over time, facilitated through three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is the process of inputting information into the memory system. For instance, when listening to a lecture, watching a play, reading a book, or having a conversation, the brain is actively encoding information. This initial stage involves transforming sensory input into a form that can be processed and stored by the brain. Various factors, such as...
Traumatic Memory01:20

Traumatic Memory

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor
10:00

Gradient Echo Quantum Memory in Warm Atomic Vapor

Published on: November 11, 2013

Effect of cosmic rays on computer memories.

J F Ziegler, W A Lanford

    Science (New York, N.Y.)
    |November 16, 1979
    PubMed
    Summary

    Cosmic rays can cause errors in computer memory, especially in future devices. Understanding particle interactions and environmental factors like altitude can help improve electronic device reliability.

    Area of Science:

    • Physics
    • Computer Engineering
    • Materials Science

    Background:

    • Cosmic rays pose a threat to sensitive electronic components.
    • Understanding particle interactions with silicon is crucial for predicting memory errors.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To develop a method for evaluating cosmic ray effects on computer memory.
    • To estimate cosmic-ray-induced error rates in current and future memory devices.

    Main Methods:

    • Reviewing sea-level cosmic-ray particle flux.
    • Estimating particle interactions with silicon, focusing on charge-burst generation.
    • Relating charge pulses to integrated circuit components to estimate error rates.

    Main Results:

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  • Cosmic-ray nucleons and muons cause marginal errors in current memories.
  • Future memory circuitry may experience significant cosmic-ray-induced errors.
  • Error rates increase sharply with altitude, suggesting altitude-based testing.

    • Conclusions:

    • A method for evaluating cosmic ray effects on computer memory has been established.
    • Shielding, altitude, and solar cycle significantly influence error rates.
    • Further research into cosmic ray mitigation for next-generation electronics is warranted.