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Updated: Jul 11, 2026

The Forced Swim Test as a Model of Depressive-like Behavior
Published on: March 2, 2015
Reflections on masculinity, culture and the diagnosis of depression
1Waikato Clinical School, Waikato Hospital, Hamilton, New Zealand. mellsopg@waikatodhb.govt.nz
Objective:
To inform the debate on the relationship between gender and depression by examining clinicians' ratings on selected HoNos items in two cultural groups.
Method:
Scores on items 1 (overactivity/aggression) and 2 (depression) as recorded by clinicians in the CAOS study of more than 12,000 unselected New Zealand psychiatric service users were analysed by gender and self identified ethnicity.
Results:
The lowest ratings for depression and highest for overactivity/agression were assigned to Māori males. Female Māori, were rated next, followed by male non-Māori. Female non-Māori were rated highest on depression and lowest on overactivity/agression.
Conclusions:
Amongst the hypotheses to explain these findings are those relating to service utilization, rater bias, criteria bias, and cultural pathoplastic effects. These questions need answers.
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