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Action Potentials

Action Potentials

Action Potential

Action Potential

Neurons communicate by firing action potentials—the electrochemical signal that is propagated along the axon. The signal results in the release of neurotransmitters at axon terminals, thereby transmitting information to the nervous system. An action potential is a specific "all-or-none" change in membrane potential that results in a rapid spike in voltage.
Membrane potential in neurons
Neurons typically have a resting membrane potential of about -70 millivolts (mV). When they receive...

Action Potential

Action Potential

Neurons communicate by firing action potentials—the electrochemical signal that is propagated along the axon. The signal results in the release of neurotransmitters at axon terminals, thereby transmitting information to the nervous system. An action potential is a specific "all-or-none" change in membrane potential that results in a rapid spike in voltage.
Membrane potential in neurons
Neurons typically have a resting membrane potential of about -70 millivolts (mV). When they receive...

Hair Cells

Hair Cells

Hair cells are the sensory receptors of the auditory system—they transduce mechanical sound waves into electrical energy that the nervous system can understand. Hair cells are located in the organ of Corti within the cochlea of the inner ear, between the basilar and tectorial membranes. The actual sensory receptors are called inner hair cells. The outer hair cells serve other functions, such as sound amplification in the cochlea, and are not discussed in detail here.

Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

Action Potential: Phases of Stimulation

The action potential is a complex electrical event that occurs in excitable cells, such as neurons and muscle cells. It consists of several distinct phases, each with specific characteristics.
Resting Phase:
In this phase, the cell's membrane is at its resting potential, typically around -70 millivolts (mV) for neurons. Inside the cell, there is a higher concentration of potassium ions (K+) and a lower concentration of sodium ions (Na+). Voltage-gated sodium channels are closed, and...

Local Anesthetics: Differential Sensitivity of Nerve Fibers

Local Anesthetics: Differential Sensitivity of Nerve Fibers

Local anesthetics (LAs) block the sodium channels of nerve trunks, sensory nerve endings, and neuromuscular junctions. Although LAs can block all kinds of nerves, the sensitivity of nerve fibers differs according to nerve types and structures. LAs are known to block myelinated fibers faster than unmyelinated ones. Also, they block pain or sensory neurons at low concentrations without affecting the motor neurons involved in muscle contractions. This helps relieve labor pain without affecting the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 11, 2026

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurement of the Rat Ulnar Nerve with Axonal Excitability Testing

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurement of the Rat Ulnar Nerve with Axonal Excitability Testing

Published on: February 6, 2018

Human auditory nerve compound action potentials and long latency responses.

S Mahendran¹, S Bleeck, I M Winter

¹MRC Cognition and Brain Sciences Unit, Cambridge, UK.

Acta Oto-Laryngologica

|September 14, 2007

Summary

This study investigated refractory influences on compound action potentials (CAPs) in humans and guinea pigs. A long latency response (LLR) in humans, not seen in guinea pigs, can overlap with CAPs, reducing their amplitude at high pulse rates.

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Data Acquisition and Analysis In Brainstem Evoked Response Audiometry In Mice

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Last Updated: Jul 11, 2026

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurement of the Rat Ulnar Nerve with Axonal Excitability Testing

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Published on: February 6, 2018

In Vivo Electrophysiological Measurement of Compound Muscle Action Potential from the Forelimbs in Mouse Models of Motor Neuron Degeneration

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Published on: June 15, 2018

Data Acquisition and Analysis In Brainstem Evoked Response Audiometry In Mice

Data Acquisition and Analysis In Brainstem Evoked Response Audiometry In Mice

Published on: May 10, 2019

Area of Science:

Auditory Neuroscience
Human Physiology
Animal Models

Background:

Compound action potentials (CAPs) are crucial for assessing auditory nerve function.
Understanding refractory periods and other influences on CAPs is vital for accurate electrophysiological measurements.
Differences in CAP generation between species can inform human auditory system research.

Purpose of the Study:

To quantify refractory period effects on CAPs in humans and guinea pigs.
To investigate other factors influencing CAP amplitude and waveform.
To compare CAP responses between human and guinea pig auditory systems.

Main Methods:

Compound action potentials (CAPs) were recorded from humans via trans-tympanic and extra-tympanic electrocochleography.
CAPs were also obtained from anesthetized guinea pigs.
Stimuli included single pulses, paired pulses, and pulse trains with varying inter-pulse intervals.

Main Results:

CAP waveform similarity was observed across species for single pulses.
The second CAP in paired pulses was smaller than the first, decreasing with inter-pulse interval similarly in both species.
Humans exhibited a significant long latency response (LLR) not present in guinea pigs, potentially due to post-auricular muscles, which affected CAPs at high pulse rates.

Conclusions:

The post-auricular musculature contributes to a long latency response (LLR) in humans.
LLR overlap with subsequent CAPs can explain reduced CAP amplitudes at high pulse rates in clinical settings.
Species-specific differences in LLRs highlight the importance of considering physiological variations in auditory electrophysiology research.