Experimental models for therapeutic studies of transitional cell carcinoma

Transitional cell carcinoma (TCC) is the second most common malignancy of the genito-urinary tract. To date, the therapy options available seem unable to prevent TCC recurrence and its progression, even though therapy studies are constantly investigating new treatment options. A great variety of TCC models have been described. For each study, the model has to be modified according to the specific investigative aim. The establishment of reproducible models is a continuing challenge. Currently, there is a strong tendency towards 3-dimensional models for in vitro studies. The aim of this article was to review current ex vivo and in vivo models used in studies of TCC therapy. We describe 2- and 3-dimensional cell and tissue cultures, as well as the set-up, investigative options and detection methods used in rodent heterotopic and orthotopic models.