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Updated: Jul 8, 2026

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Published on: October 25, 2024
The anatomy and physiology of the avian endocrine system
Midge Ritchie1, Anthony A Pilny
1Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 334, Basseterre, St. Kitts, West Indies. mritchie@rossvet.edu.kn
Abstract:
The endocrine system of birds is comparable to that of mammals, although there are many unique aspects to consider when studying the anatomy, physiology, and biochemistry. Avian endocrinology is a field of veterinary medicine that is unfamiliar to many practitioners; however, it is important to have a comprehensive understanding when evaluating companion birds in clinical practice. This article covers the anatomy and physiology of the normal avian, and readers are referred to other articles for a more detailed explanation of altered physiology and pathology.
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