Nutritional Deficiencies and Intoxications of the Exotic Animal Patient

Copper, iron, zinc, calcium, and vitamins A, C, and D are essential nutrients but can cause disease when deficient or excessive in exotic animals. Copper toxicity often results from dietary overload, causing liver damage and hemolysis, while deficiency leads to neurologic signs. Iron overload, especially in birds, causes hemosiderosis and organ damage. Zinc toxicity commonly arises from ingesting metal objects, producing neurological and gastrointestinal signs. Vitamin imbalances cause diverse effects: vitamin A affects epithelial health, vitamin C deficiency causes scurvy, and vitamin D toxicity leads to hypercalcemia and tissue calcification. Proper diet management is critical.