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Direct Motor Pathways

Direct Motor Pathways

The direct motor pathways, also known as the pyramidal tracts, are a group of neural pathways that originate in the brain and descend through the spinal cord. They control the voluntary movement of the body. There are two major direct motor pathways: the corticospinal and the corticobulbar tracts.
The corticospinal tract is responsible for the voluntary movement of the limbs and trunk. It originates in the cerebral cortex of the brain and descends through the cerebrum's internal capsule and the...

Indirect Motor Pathways

Indirect Motor Pathways

The indirect motor or extrapyramidal pathways originate in the brainstem, the lower portion of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. They consist of several distinct tracts, each with specialized functions. The four main tracts of the indirect motor pathways are the vestibulospinal tract, the reticulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, and the rubrospinal tract.
The vestibulospinal tract originates in the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem. The vestibular system detects changes in...

Restarting Stalled Replication Forks

Restarting Stalled Replication Forks

DNA replication is initiated at sites containing predefined DNA sequences known as origins of replication. DNA is unwound at these sites by the minichromosome maintenance (MCM) helicase and other factors such as Cdc45 and the associated GINS complex.The unwound single strands are protected by replication protein A (RPA) until DNA polymerase starts synthesizing DNA at the 5’ end of the strand in the same direction as the replication fork. To prevent the replication fork from falling apart, a...

Restarting Stalled Replication Forks

Restarting Stalled Replication Forks

DNA replication is initiated at sites containing predefined DNA sequences known as origins of replication. DNA is unwound at these sites by the minichromosome maintenance (MCM) helicase and other factors such as Cdc45 and the associated GINS complex.The unwound single strands are protected by replication protein A (RPA) until DNA polymerase starts synthesizing DNA at the 5’ end of the strand in the same direction as the replication fork. To prevent the replication fork from falling apart, a...

The Citric Acid Cycle

The Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, consists of several energy-generating reactions that yield one ATP molecule, three NADH molecules, one FADH2 molecule, and two CO2 molecules.

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The citric acid cycle is termed an amphibolic pathway as it operates both anabolically and catabolically. The cyclic reactions balance the flux of the substrates to provide an optimal concentration of NADH and ATP to the cell.
Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle is regulated in several ways, including feedback inhibition, regulation of enzyme activities, and associated anaplerotic or cataplerotic pathways.
The primary substrate of the TCA cycle—acetyl CoA—is produced by the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 6, 2026

Application of Unsupervised Multi-Omic Factor Analysis to Uncover Patterns of Variation and Molecular Processes Linked to Cardiovascular Disease

Application of Unsupervised Multi-Omic Factor Analysis to Uncover Patterns of Variation and Molecular Processes Linked to Cardiovascular Disease

Published on: September 20, 2024

Many forks in the path: cycling with FoxO.

K K Ho¹, S S Myatt, E W-F Lam

¹Department of Oncology, Cancer Research UK Labs, Imperial College London, London, UK.

|April 9, 2008

Summary

Forkhead box O (FoxO) transcription factors regulate cell fate, impacting metabolism, differentiation, and proliferation. Their deregulation is linked to cell cycle disruption and diseases like cancer.

Area of Science:

Molecular Biology
Genetics
Cell Biology

Background:

FoxO proteins are a conserved family of transcription factors defined by their forkhead DNA-binding domain.
They play critical roles in regulating diverse cellular processes, including metabolism, differentiation, apoptosis, and proliferation.
FoxO factors are crucial in cell-fate determination, with their activity being cell-type and environment-specific.

Purpose of the Study:

To elucidate the role of FoxO transcription factors in regulating cellular processes.
To understand how FoxO factors influence cell-fate decisions.
To investigate the connection between FoxO deregulation and proliferative diseases.

Main Methods:

Analysis of forkhead DNA-binding domain characteristics.

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Subcellular Fractionation of Primary Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Cells to Monitor Nuclear/Cytoplasmic Protein Trafficking

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Last Updated: Jul 6, 2026

Application of Unsupervised Multi-Omic Factor Analysis to Uncover Patterns of Variation and Molecular Processes Linked to Cardiovascular Disease

Application of Unsupervised Multi-Omic Factor Analysis to Uncover Patterns of Variation and Molecular Processes Linked to Cardiovascular Disease

Published on: September 20, 2024

Functional Cloning Using a Xenopus Oocyte Expression System

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Subcellular Fractionation of Primary Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Cells to Monitor Nuclear/Cytoplasmic Protein Trafficking

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Published on: October 23, 2019

Investigation of FoxO-regulated cellular processes (metabolism, differentiation, apoptosis, proliferation).

Examination of the FoxO regulatory mechanism on cell cycle machinery.

Main Results:

FoxO factors are key regulators of cell-fate decisions.
Regulation of the cell cycle machinery is a primary mechanism by which FoxO influences cell fate.
Perturbation of the cell cycle is a common cellular consequence of FoxO deregulation.

Conclusions:

FoxO transcription factors are essential for normal cellular function and cell-fate determination.
Dysregulation of FoxO factors significantly impacts cell cycle control.
Aberrant FoxO activity is implicated in the pathogenesis of proliferative diseases, notably cancer.