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Related Concept Videos

Overview of the Skull01:08

Overview of the Skull

The cranium (skull) is the skeletal structure of the head that supports the face and protects the brain. It is subdivided into the facial bones and the brain case, or cranial vault. The facial bones underlie the facial structures, form the nasal cavity, enclose the eyeballs, and support the teeth of the upper and lower jaws.
The cranial vault surrounds and protects the brain and houses the middle and inner ear structures. This cavity is bounded superiorly by the rounded top of the skull, which...
Sutures of the Skull01:22

Sutures of the Skull

The human skull is composed of several bones that come together to protect the brain and support the structures of the face. The junctions where these bones meet are called sutures.
Sutures are immobile joints between adjacent bones of the skull. The narrow gap between the bones is filled with dense, fibrous connective tissue that unites the bones. The long sutures located between the skull bones are not straight but instead follow irregular, tightly twisting paths. These twisting lines tightly...
Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View01:14

Cranial Bones: Superior and Posterior View

The superior view of the cranium shows the frontal and paired parietal bones.
The frontal bone is the single bone that forms the forehead. At its anterior midline, between the eyebrows, there is a slight depression called the glabella. The frontal bone also forms the supraorbital margin of the orbit. Near the middle of this margin is the supraorbital foramen, the opening that provides passage for a sensory nerve to the forehead. The frontal bone is thickened just above each supraorbital margin,...
Cranial Bones: Lateral View01:27

Cranial Bones: Lateral View

The lateral view of the cranium is dominated by temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid bones.
The temporal bone forms the lower lateral side of the skull. The temporal bone is subdivided into several regions. The flattened upper portion is the squamous portion of the temporal bone. Below this area and projecting anteriorly is the zygomatic process of the temporal bone, which forms the posterior portion of the zygomatic arch. Posteriorly is the mastoid portion of the temporal bone. Projecting...
Muscles that Move the Head01:19

Muscles that Move the Head

The muscles that move the head are a dynamic and complex group of structures that work together to facilitate a wide range of head movements, including rotation, flexion, extension, and lateral bending.
The bilateral sternocleidomastoid, or SCM, and the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles are significant head flexors. The SCM muscles originate at the sternum and clavicle and attach to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The SCM contracts bilaterally to bend the head forward, whereas...
Arteries of the Head and Neck01:26

Arteries of the Head and Neck

The human body's intricate network of arteries ensures that every organ system receives the necessary oxygen and nutrients for optimal function. The arterial network in the head and neck region is particularly complex, providing vital blood flow to the brain, eyes, and other critical structures. Prominent arteries in this region include the internal carotid arteries and the vertebral arteries.
The internal carotid arteries supply blood to the anterior portion of the cerebrum. They enter the...

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Related Experiment Video

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Personalized 3D-printed Headgear for Multi-electrode Transcranial Electrical Stimulation
07:47

Personalized 3D-printed Headgear for Multi-electrode Transcranial Electrical Stimulation

Published on: September 9, 2025

A pre-Hispanic head.

Raffaella Bianucci1, Maria Jeziorska, Rudy Lallo

  • 1Laboratory of Anthropology, Department of Animal and Human Biology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy. raffaella.bianucci@unito.it

Plos One
|May 1, 2008
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Biologic rhythms in hair suggest a pre-Hispanic South American origin. Bacterial metal complexation in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) explains high toxic element levels and tissue preservation, challenging forensic toxicology assumptions.

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Published on: September 9, 2025

Area of Science:

  • Archaeological Science
  • Toxicology
  • Microbiology

Background:

  • Analysis of human remains offers insights into past lives and environments.
  • Preservation of biological tissues is crucial for toxicological and metabolic studies.
  • Isotope analysis and radiocarbon dating are key methods in archaeological research.

Observation:

  • Hydrogen isotope ratios in hair indicated a South American origin and a pre-Hispanic dating (1418-1491 AD).
  • Exceptionally well-preserved tissues were observed.
  • Hair samples showed high concentrations of lead, arsenic, and mercury, with no corresponding bone deposition.

Findings:

  • The high levels of toxic elements in hair are attributed to bacterial metabolic activity and metal complexation within extracellular polymeric substances (EPS).
  • This bacterial mechanism is proposed as the reason for the remarkable tissue preservation.
  • The findings suggest the soil composition where the head was buried contained high metal content.

Implications:

  • Results challenge the reliance on hair analysis for reconstructing pre-mortem metabolism and detecting accumulated toxic elements in forensic toxicology.
  • The study highlights the potential for microbial activity to influence toxicological results in archaeological specimens.
  • Understanding bacterial metal sequestration is vital for accurate interpretation of ancient human remains.