Self-handicapping, excuse making, and counterfactual thinking: consequences for self-esteem and future motivation

Area of Science:

• Psychology
• Cognitive Science
• Social Psychology

Background:

• Counterfactual thinking, particularly upward counterfactuals (imagining better outcomes), is typically linked to increased motivation but also negative affect.
• Existing research suggests upward counterfactuals can serve as excuses for poor performance, potentially altering their impact on self-esteem and motivation.

Purpose of the Study:

• To investigate whether upward counterfactual thoughts can function as excuses, thereby protecting self-esteem at the expense of future motivation.
• To examine the role of self-handicapping in mediating the relationship between upward counterfactual thinking, self-esteem, and future performance.

Main Methods:

• Conducted five studies exploring the interplay between self-handicapping, upward counterfactual thinking, self-esteem, and subsequent performance.
• Manipulated the presence of self-handicaps and measured upward counterfactual thinking, self-esteem, and preparation for future tasks.

Main Results:

• Upward counterfactual thinking increased when participants engaged in self-handicapping behaviors.
• Upward counterfactuals that highlighted the self-handicap protected participants' self-esteem following failure.
• Self-esteem-protective upward counterfactuals led to reduced preparation and poorer performance on subsequent tasks.

Conclusions:

• Upward counterfactual thoughts can serve as self-protective excuses, particularly in self-handicapping contexts, leading to positive affect but diminished motivation.
• The motivational and affective consequences of upward counterfactual thinking are contingent upon individual goals and the specific content of the counterfactuals.