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Related Concept Videos

Spinal Nerves: Plexus I01:22

Spinal Nerves: Plexus I

Nerve plexuses are networks of interlacing nerves that serve as communication hubs to distribute and organize nerve action across various body regions. The nerve plexuses are organized into the cervical plexus located in the neck region, brachial plexus in the shoulder area, lumbar plexus found in the lower back, sacral plexus situated in the pelvis, and coccygeal plexus located in the coccygeal region.
The Cervical Plexus
The cervical plexus, formed by the anterior rami of the first four...
Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius01:09

Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a short...
Arteries of the Upper Limbs01:12

Arteries of the Upper Limbs

The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...
Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna01:15

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...
Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age01:09

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 1, 2026

Development of a Neonatal Rat Model for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury
09:42

Development of a Neonatal Rat Model for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury

Published on: March 27, 2026

Upper extremity size differences in brachial plexus birth palsy.

Donald S Bae1, Michelle Ferretti, Peter M Waters

  • 1Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Children's Hospital Boston, 300 Longwood Avenue, Hunnewell 2, Boston, MA 02115, USA. donald.bae@childrens.harvard.edu

Hand (New York, N.Y.)
|September 10, 2008
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Patients with brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) often have affected limbs approximately 95% the size of unaffected limbs. These limb size differences, while significant, do not correlate with active motion or patient age.

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Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets
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Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets

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Last Updated: Jul 1, 2026

Development of a Neonatal Rat Model for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury
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Development of a Neonatal Rat Model for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury

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Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets
06:51

Methods for In Vivo Biomechanical Testing on Brachial Plexus in Neonatal Piglets

Published on: December 19, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Pediatric Orthopedics
  • Neurology
  • Rehabilitation Medicine

Background:

  • Brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) can lead to significant upper extremity size discrepancies.
  • Quantifying these differences is crucial for understanding functional impact and patient concerns.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To determine and quantify size differences between affected and unaffected upper extremities in children with BPBP.
  • To assess the correlation between limb size discrepancies and active motion.
  • To evaluate the perceived importance of limb size differences by patients and families.

Main Methods:

  • Bilateral upper extremity measurements (length and girth) were taken in 48 patients with BPBP.
  • Active motion was assessed using standardized clinical scales (Mallet, Toronto, HSC).
  • Spearman's rank correlation was used to analyze relationships between limb ratios, age, and motion scores.

Main Results:

  • Affected limbs were significantly smaller, averaging 95% of contralateral limb length and 97% of girth.
  • Over 37% of families reported limb size differences as very or extremely important.
  • No significant correlation was found between limb size discrepancies and active motion or patient age.

Conclusions:

  • Children with BPBP typically exhibit mild to moderate upper limb size discrepancies.
  • These objective size differences do not appear to correlate with functional motor outcomes.
  • Patient and family perception of limb appearance is a significant psychosocial factor in BPBP management.