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Fractures: Bone Repair

Fractures: Bone Repair

Treatment for a fracture is based on the type of break, the bone affected, and the patient's age.
Minor fractures with no bone displacement are treated by immobilizing the fractured bone using a cast or splint. However, in the case of fractures with displaced bones, the broken bones are repositioned before immobilization to ensure successful healing without deformation and loss of function. The realignment of fractured bone ends is performed through a process called reduction. If the procedure...

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The bones of the human skeletal system are of varied shapes, sizes, and functions. They can be classified based on their shape and function into four major classes: long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. Some classifications include a fifth type, the sesamoid bones, as a separate class, whereas others categorize them under short bones.
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Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Assessment of Bone Fracture Healing Using Micro-Computed Tomography

Assessment of Bone Fracture Healing Using Micro-Computed Tomography

Published on: December 9, 2022

Calcaneal fracture classification: a comparative study.

Tim Schepers¹, Esther M M van Lieshout, Abida Z Ginai

¹Department of Surgery-Traumatology, Erasmus MC, University Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands. t.schepers@erasmusmc.nl

The Journal of Foot and Ankle Surgery : Official Publication of the American College of Foot and Ankle Surgeons

|February 24, 2009

Summary

Classifying calcaneal fractures is challenging due to varied systems. The Sanders and Crosby classifications show moderate reliability and correlate with outcomes, suggesting their utility for intra-articular calcaneal fractures.

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Published on: December 9, 2022

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Published on: November 30, 2017

Area of Science:

Orthopedic surgery
Radiology
Medical imaging

Background:

Lack of consensus on calcaneal fracture classification hinders treatment and outcome analysis.
Numerous classification systems exist, complicating comparative studies.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the prevalence and interobserver reliability of calcaneal fracture classification systems.
To determine the correlation between classification systems, treatment choices, and clinical outcomes.

Main Methods:

Systematic literature search for calcaneal fracture classification systems.
Twelve observers classified 30 intra-articular calcaneal fractures using three prevalent systems.
Calculated interobserver reliability (kappa statistic) and correlations with treatment and outcomes.

Main Results:

Identified 49 conventional and 15 CT scan classification systems.
Essex-Lopresti, Zwipp, Crosby, and Sanders were most prevalent.
Sanders and Crosby classifications showed moderate interobserver agreement (kappa = 0.48) and correlated with outcomes.
Essex-Lopresti showed poor interobserver reliability among radiologists (kappa = 0.26).
No system directly correlated with treatment choice, but all correlated with outcomes.

Conclusions:

The Sanders and Crosby classification systems demonstrate moderate, comparable interobserver variability.
These systems are likely useful for classifying intra-articular calcaneal fractures.
Further research may refine classification for improved treatment and outcome prediction.