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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 25, 2026

Using Cholesky Decomposition to Explore Individual Differences in Longitudinal Relations between Reading Skills

Using Cholesky Decomposition to Explore Individual Differences in Longitudinal Relations between Reading Skills

Published on: September 17, 2019

Intergenerational continuity in convictions: a five-generation study.

Catrien C J H Bijleveld¹, Miriam Wijkman

¹Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement, Leiden, The Netherlands. cbijleveld@nscr.nl

Criminal Behaviour and Mental Health : CBMH

|March 11, 2009

Summary

Parental convictions increase the risk of offspring convictions. Nurture, not heredity, appears to be the primary driver of this intergenerational cycle of crime.

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Area of Science:

Criminology
Sociology
Genetics

Background:

Intergenerational continuity in offending is a known phenomenon.
Previous studies rarely examined more than two generations.
Mechanisms explaining transmission, including gendered effects, remain unclear.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate intergenerational transmission of offending across five generations.
To differentiate between within-gender and cross-gender transmission.
To explore potential mechanisms driving this continuity.

Main Methods:

Analysis of conviction data from 6,322 individuals across five generations (1882-2007).
Disaggregation of data by gender for both parents and offspring.
Use of odds ratios to quantify transmission risk, distinguishing parental conviction timing.

Main Results:

Parental convictions elevate offspring conviction risk by approximately twofold.
Maternal delinquency showed association with offspring criminality, though with variable odds ratios.
Parental convictions occurring before a child's birth did not increase risk; findings were more pronounced for serious offenses.

Conclusions:

Evidence suggests environmental factors (nurture) are more influential than genetic or labeling mechanisms.
The findings highlight the role of environmental influences in perpetuating offending across generations.