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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 23, 2026

Establishing Fungal Entomopathogens as Endophytes: Towards Endophytic Biological Control

Establishing Fungal Entomopathogens as Endophytes: Towards Endophytic Biological Control

Published on: April 11, 2013

Pathogen refuge: a key to understanding biological control.

Kenneth B Johnson¹

¹Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, USA. johnsonk@science.oregonstate.edu

Annual Review of Phytopathology

|April 30, 2009

Summary

Pathogen refuge protects infectious propagules from microbial antagonists. Strategies like antagonist mixtures and optimized timing aim to reduce this refuge, enhancing biological control effectiveness.

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Area of Science:

Plant pathology
Microbial ecology
Biological control

Background:

Pathogen refuge describes the survival of infectious pathogen propagules despite the presence of antagonistic microbes.
Refuge can arise from temporal, spatial, structural, or probabilistic factors, or pathogen adaptation.
Understanding refuge is crucial for optimizing biological control strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

To define and explore the concept of pathogen refuge in microbial interactions.
To identify factors influencing pathogen refuge size.
To outline strategies for minimizing pathogen refuge to improve biological control.

Main Methods:

Experimental estimation of refuge size by measuring infective pathogen propagules against varying antagonist concentrations.
Analysis of factors influencing refuge size, including antagonist characteristics and environmental conditions.

Main Results:

Refuge size is primarily influenced by antagonist qualities and environmental factors, not antagonist quantity.
Most biological control optimization efforts focus on reducing pathogen refuge.

Conclusions:

Minimizing pathogen refuge is key to enhancing biological control efficacy.
Strategies such as antagonist mixtures, optimized introduction timing, integrated control, and environmental management can reduce pathogen refuge.
Utilizing disarmed pathogens as antagonists presents a novel approach to minimize refuge.