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Mitral Valve Prolapse II: Assessment and Management

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 19, 2026

Endoscopic Bilateral Nipple-sparing Mastectomy via a Single Axillary Incision with Immediate Pre-pectoral Implant-based Breast Reconstruction
13:35

Endoscopic Bilateral Nipple-sparing Mastectomy via a Single Axillary Incision with Immediate Pre-pectoral Implant-based Breast Reconstruction

Published on: May 17, 2024

Gynecomastia: pathophysiology, evaluation, and management.

Ruth E Johnson1, M Hassan Murad

  • 1Division of Preventive, Occupational and Aerospace Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, USA.

Mayo Clinic Proceedings
|November 3, 2009
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Gynecomastia, the benign growth of male breast tissue, often stems from hormonal imbalances or medications. A careful diagnostic approach helps differentiate it from pseudogynecomastia and identify underlying causes.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 19, 2026

Endoscopic Bilateral Nipple-sparing Mastectomy via a Single Axillary Incision with Immediate Pre-pectoral Implant-based Breast Reconstruction
13:35

Endoscopic Bilateral Nipple-sparing Mastectomy via a Single Axillary Incision with Immediate Pre-pectoral Implant-based Breast Reconstruction

Published on: May 17, 2024

Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Primary Care Medicine

Background:

  • Gynecomastia involves benign proliferation of male breast glandular tissue.
  • It is commonly linked to increased estrogen, decreased testosterone, or medication side effects.
  • Despite its benign nature, it can cause significant patient anxiety.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To outline a diagnostic strategy for gynecomastia in a primary care setting.
  • To differentiate true gynecomastia from pseudogynecomastia.
  • To guide cost-effective investigation for underlying causes.

Main Methods:

  • Initial assessment involves careful history taking and physical examination to rule out pseudogynecomastia.
  • A stepwise diagnostic approach incorporating imaging and laboratory testing is proposed.
  • Exclusion of neoplasms and endocrinopathies is a key component of the workup.

Main Results:

  • The diagnostic pathway aims for cost-effective identification of gynecomastia causes.
  • Idiopathic gynecomastia is diagnosed when all other investigations yield normal results.
  • The current evidence base is primarily observational and of lower quality.

Conclusions:

  • A structured diagnostic approach is essential for managing gynecomastia.
  • Distinguishing gynecomastia from pseudogynecomastia is the critical first step.
  • Further high-quality research is needed to improve diagnostic certainty and treatment strategies.