Evolutionary dynamics of N-glycosylation sites of influenza virus hemagglutinin

The hemagglutinin protein of influenza virus bears several sites of N-linked asparagine glycosylation. The number and location of these sites varies with strain and substrain. The human H3 hemagglutinin has gained several glycosylation sites on the antigenically important globular head since its introduction to humans, presumably due to selection. Although there is abundant evidence that glycosylation can affect antigenic and functional properties of the protein, direct evidence for selection is lacking. We have analyzed gain and loss of glycosylation sites on the side branches of a large phylogenetic tree of H(3) HA1 sequences (branches off of the main, long-term line of descent). Side branches contrast with the main line of descent: losses of glycosylation sites are not uncommon, and they outnumber gains. Although other explanations are possible, this observation is consistent with weak selection for glycosylation sites or a more complicated pattern of selection. Furthermore, terminal and internal branches differ with respect to rates of gain and loss of glycosylation sites. This pattern would not be expected under selective neutrality, but is easily explained by weak selection or selection that changes with the immune state of the host population. Thus, it provides evidence that selection acts on the glycosylation state of hemagglutinin.