[Imaging the brain, from the cell to the organ]

Brain imaging has progressed over the centuries, from prehistory (surgical and sculptural empiricism), through the Middle Ages (dissection and drawings), the Renaissance (printing) and the 18th century (Spallanzani and ultrasounds), to the 19th century and the discovery of piezoelectricity by the Curie brothers and X-rays by Röntgen in 1895. The head had finally become transparent! The microscope was used by Ramon Y Cajal for histological and neuropathological brain studies. Marie Curie's discovery of radioisotopes paved the way for advances in in vivo neurophysiology. In the 20th century, technical progress accelerated with the advent of computed tomography. Injected contrast products were initially negative (air for ventriculography and pneumo-encephalography), and subsequently positive (intraventricular then intraarterial iodine, cerebral arteriography, increasingly hyperselective). Neurology and neurosurgery were followed by neuroradiology, stereotaxy, and interventional neuroradiology. G.N. Hounsfield's EMI CT scanner replaced silver salts crystals with computed pixels and voxels. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI, 1981), which dispenses with the need for X-rays, is evolving at the same pace as computer science itself (Moore's Law) in the form of nanometric biophotonics for example. Diffusion MRI is providing precious information on neuroanatomy (axonal organization of the white matter and neuro-tractography, vascular anatomy), neurochemistry (MRS) and neurophysiology. Functional MRI of sensory activation and resting connectivity, the substrate of thought, is giving fascinating results. Functional stereotactic neurosurgery (for epilepsy, abnormal movements, etc.), stereotactic radiosurgery and endovascular interventional neuroradiology are among the latest approaches.