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Updated: Jun 12, 2026

Liquid Chromatography Coupled to Refractive Index or Mass Spectrometric Detection for Metabolite Profiling in Lysate-based Cell-free Systems
Published on: September 23, 2021
Direct analysis of glucuronides with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric techniques and methods
Raimo A Ketola1, Kati S Hakala
1Division of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, P.O. Box 56, FI-00014 Finland. raimo.ketola@helsinki.fi
Abstract:
Glucuronidation is one of the main phase II metabolic reactions in humans and animals. A variety of analytical techniques and methods have been used for the detection and quantification of glucuronides of both endogenous and xenobiotic compounds from different biological samples of humans and animals. Drug metabolism has been extensively studied with both in vitro and in vivo experiments under various conditions. The purpose of this review is to explore in detail the benefits and drawbacks of different liquid chromatography-mass spectrometric (LC/MS) methods and techniques in detection and identification of all forms of glucuronide conjugates from in vitro, biological, and environmental samples. The entire analytical procedure is covered, from sample treatment, separation, and ionization to qualitative and quantitative analyses. The aim of this review is not to cover every published paper where glucuronides are identified and/or quantified, but rather to focus on special cases where a new analytical approach or technical development has led to a better, more specific, or more comprehensive detection, identification, or quantitation of glucuronide conjugates.
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