Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jun 11, 2026

Systematic Assessment of Mammalian Skull Specimens for Dental and Temporomandibular Joint Pathology
Published on: August 22, 2022
Dental aspects in patients with DiGeorge syndrome
Okan Toka1, Matthias Karl, Sven Dittrich
1Department of Pediatric Cardiology, Children's Hospital University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany.
Abstract:
DiGeorge syndrome, which is caused by a microdeletion of 1.5 to 3.0 megabases on the long arm of chromosome 22, has an incidence of approximately 1:4,000 to 1:5,000 live births. The phenotypic spectrum of this disorder includes congenital heart defects, immunodeficiency due to thymic hypoplasia or aplasia, transient or permanent hypocalcemia due to parathyroid hypoplasia or aplasia, developmental retardation, and psychiatric disorders. Dental aspects in these patients include skeletal malformations, velopharyngeal insufficiency with or without cleft palate, small mouth, and hypotonus orofacial musculature, as well as impaired salivary flow. Enamel aberrations related to hypocalcemia may result in a higher frequency of dental caries. Based on a series of five patients, the medical and dental aspects that have to be considered in the care of patients with DiGeorge syndrome are presented.
Related Concept Videos
Teeth
In the bud stage, the tooth germ (an aggregation of cells) starts to form in the developing jawbone. During the cap stage, the tooth germ differentiates into enamel organ, dental papilla, and dental sac, which will later develop into the tooth's enamel, dentin and...
Tooth Anatomy
The Crown, Neck, and Root
The visible part of the tooth is referred to as the crown. It's covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the human body. The crown is uniquely shaped for each type of tooth, allowing for different functions such as cutting, tearing, or grinding food.
The Oral Microbiota
Assessment of the Mouth
Mouth Inspection
The inspection begins with visually examining the mouth for symmetry, color, and size.
Development of the Oral Microbiota
Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease II: Clinical Features and Management
Clinical Manifestations
GERD presents itself in a multitude of ways, with symptoms varying from person to person. The hallmark symptoms are...