[Ochronosis as a cause of multiple joint osteoarthritis in one patient]

Osteoclasts are cells responsible for bone resorption and remodeling. They originate from hematopoietic progenitor cells present in the bone marrow. Numerous progenitor cells fuse to form multinucleated cells, each with 10-20 nuclei. A single osteoclast has a diameter of 150 to 200 µM. These cells have ruffled borders that break down the underlying bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the blood in bone resorption. Osteoclasts cling to bones with their ruffled edges during bone...

Aging and its effect on bone remodeling is the most common cause of bone disorders. In young and healthy people, bone deposition and resorption happen at an equal rate to maintain optimal bone health.
Bone deposition is also affected by the levels of sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone that promote osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis. When the level of these hormones decreases due to aging, it causes a reduction in bone deposition. As a result, bone resorption by osteoclasts...

The knee joint is the most complicated joint in the body. It consists of three articulations– two tibiofemoral and one patellofemoral. As is characteristic of synovial joints, the knee joint has a thin articular capsule that partially surrounds this joint cavity. Additionally, several ligaments, muscles, and cartilaginous structures support the movement of the knee.
A total of seven ligaments support the knee joint. The patellar ligament, which is also attached to the quadriceps femoris group...

The ankle is formed by the talocrural joint (crural = leg). It consists of the articulations between the talus bone of the foot and the distal ends of the tibia and fibula of the leg. The superior aspect of the talus bone is square-shaped and has three areas of articulation. The top of the talus articulates with the inferior tibia. This is the portion of the ankle joint that carries the body weight between the leg and foot. The sides of the talus are firmly held in position by the articulations...

Joints form during embryonic development in conjunction with the formation and growth of the associated bones. The embryonic tissue that gives rise to all bones, cartilage, and connective tissues of the body is called mesenchyme.
The mesenchymal stem cells differentiate into chondrocytes that form the hyaline cartilage, and later the cartilaginous model of the bone. This model further transforms into a bone. This process is known as endochondral ossification.
During development, the limbs...

Bone formation, or ossification, begins around the sixth to seventh week of embryonic development. Most bones develop from a cartilaginous template through the process of endochondral ossification. Cartilage formation begins when clusters of mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes. These chondrocytes proliferate rapidly and secrete an extracellular matrix that becomes encased in a membrane called the perichondrium. The resulting cartilage model provides a template that resembles the...