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Related Concept Videos

Polyprotic Acids03:38

Polyprotic Acids

Acids are classified by the number of protons per molecule that they can give up in a reaction. Acids such as HCl, HNO3, and HCN that contain one ionizable hydrogen atom in each molecule are called monoprotic acids. Their reactions with water are:
Water: A Bronsted-Lowry Acid and Base02:30

Water: A Bronsted-Lowry Acid and Base

The reaction between a Brønsted-Lowry acid and water is called acid ionization. For example, when hydrogen fluoride dissolves in water and ionizes, protons are transferred from hydrogen fluoride molecules to water molecules, yielding hydronium ions and fluoride ions:
Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood01:19

Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood

Carbon dioxide (CO2) transport in the blood is critical to human physiology. On average, our body cells produce around 200 mL of CO2 per minute, precisely the quantity expelled by the lungs. This process involves the transportation of CO2 from the tissue cells to the lungs in three primary forms.
Forms of CO2 Transport
1. Dissolved in plasma: A small percentage (7-10%) of CO2 is transported and dissolved directly in the plasma.
2. Carbaminohemoglobin: Just over 20% of CO2 is chemically bound to...
Titration of Polyprotic Base with a Strong Acid01:18

Titration of Polyprotic Base with a Strong Acid

The titration of a polyprotic base such as sodium carbonate with a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid results in two equivalence points on the titration curve. At the first equivalence point, the carbonate ions in the base are completely converted to bicarbonate ions. The second equivalence point corresponds to the complete conversion of bicarbonate ions to carbonic acid, which dissociates into carbon dioxide and water. The region before the first equivalence point corresponds to the...
Bicarbonate-Carbonic Acid Buffer01:22

Bicarbonate-Carbonic Acid Buffer

The carbonic acid-bicarbonate buffer system is critical for maintaining the body's pH balance. It operates on the equilibrium:
Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation01:20

Aldehydes and Ketones with Water: Hydrate Formation

An oxygen-based nucleophile, like water, can undergo addition reactions with aldehydes and ketones. The reaction leads to the formation of hydrates, also referred to as 1,1-diols or geminal diols.
The formation of hydrates is a reversible reaction. Hydrate formation is influenced by steric and electronic factors accompanying the alkyl substituents on the carbonyl group: The rate of hydrate formation increases with a decrease in the number of alkyl groups attached to the carbonyl carbon. Hence,...

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Updated: Jun 6, 2026

Calcium Carbonate Formation in the Presence of Biopolymeric Additives
09:31

Calcium Carbonate Formation in the Presence of Biopolymeric Additives

Published on: May 14, 2019

H2CO3 forms via HCO3- in water.

András Stirling1, Imre Pápai

  • 1Chemical Research Center of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Budapest, Hungary.

The Journal of Physical Chemistry. B
|December 1, 2010
PubMed
Summary

Carbon dioxide (CO2) hydration in water proceeds via a stepwise mechanism, forming bicarbonate (HCO3-) first. This bicarbonate formation is the rate-limiting step in CO2 dissolution.

Area of Science:

  • Physical Chemistry
  • Computational Chemistry
  • Biogeochemistry

Background:

  • The dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) in water is fundamental to many natural and industrial processes.
  • The generally accepted mechanism for CO2 hydration involves a single concerted step forming carbonic acid (H2CO3).
  • Previous studies have favored a concerted mechanism over a stepwise one for CO2 hydration.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the mechanism of CO2 hydration in aqueous solution using advanced computational methods.
  • To elucidate the microscopic details and free energy profile of the CO2 hydration process.
  • To determine the rate-determining step in the formation of carbonic acid.

Main Methods:

  • Ab initio molecular dynamics simulations.

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Versatile CO2 Transformations into Complex Products: A One-pot Two-step Strategy
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Versatile CO2 Transformations into Complex Products: A One-pot Two-step Strategy

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In situ FTIR Spectroscopy as a Tool for Investigation of Gas/Solid Interaction: Water-Enhanced CO2 Adsorption in UiO-66 Metal-Organic Framework
11:38

In situ FTIR Spectroscopy as a Tool for Investigation of Gas/Solid Interaction: Water-Enhanced CO2 Adsorption in UiO-66 Metal-Organic Framework

Published on: February 1, 2020

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Calcium Carbonate Formation in the Presence of Biopolymeric Additives
09:31

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Versatile CO2 Transformations into Complex Products: A One-pot Two-step Strategy
07:36

Versatile CO2 Transformations into Complex Products: A One-pot Two-step Strategy

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In situ FTIR Spectroscopy as a Tool for Investigation of Gas/Solid Interaction: Water-Enhanced CO2 Adsorption in UiO-66 Metal-Organic Framework
11:38

In situ FTIR Spectroscopy as a Tool for Investigation of Gas/Solid Interaction: Water-Enhanced CO2 Adsorption in UiO-66 Metal-Organic Framework

Published on: February 1, 2020

  • Metadynamics technique to explore reaction pathways.
  • Extended periodic models to simulate the bulk aqueous environment.

    • Main Results:

    • A stepwise mechanism for CO2 hydration was revealed, contrasting with the accepted concerted mechanism.
    • The formation of bicarbonate (HCO3-) and a hydronium ion occurs in the initial step.
    • A subsequent, separate step involves the protonation of the CO2 moiety, with a defined activation barrier.
    • Bicarbonate formation was identified as the rate-determining step for the overall CO2 hydration process.

    Conclusions:

    • The study provides strong evidence for a stepwise mechanism in CO2 hydration.
    • The formation of bicarbonate is the slowest step, controlling the overall rate of CO2 dissolution.
    • These findings offer a revised understanding of a critical chemical process with implications for climate science and industrial chemistry.