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Determination

Determination

During embryogenesis, cells become progressively committed to different fates through a two-step process: specification followed by determination. Specification is demonstrated by removing a segment of an early embryo, “neutrally” culturing the tissue in vitro—for example, in a petri dish with simple medium—and then observing the derivatives. If the cultured region gives rise to cell types that it would normally generate in the embryo, this means that it is specified. In contrast, determination...

Cellular Differentiation

Cellular Differentiation

How does a complex organism such as a human develop from a single cell? It all starts from a single fertilized egg which gives rise to a vast array of cell types, such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and epithelial cells that characterize the adult? Throughout development and adulthood, cellular differentiation leads cells to assume their final morphology and physiology. Differentiation is the process by which unspecialized cells become specialized to carry out distinct functions.
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Forced Transdifferentiation

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 4, 2026

Stencil Micropatterning of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Probing Spatial Organization of Differentiation Fates

Stencil Micropatterning of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Probing Spatial Organization of Differentiation Fates

Published on: June 17, 2016

Engineering spatial control of multiple differentiation fates within a stem cell population.

Elmer D F Ker¹, Bur Chu, Julie A Phillippi

¹Department of Biological Sciences, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.

|February 15, 2011

Summary

Researchers engineered a bioprinter to simultaneously guide stem cells toward bone, tendon, and muscle fates in specific locations. This advance aids in understanding and regenerating complex multi-tissue structures.

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Stencil Micropatterning of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells for Probing Spatial Organization of Differentiation Fates

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Efficient Neural Differentiation using Single-Cell Culture of Human Embryonic Stem Cells

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Area of Science:

Biomaterials Engineering
Stem Cell Biology
Tissue Regeneration

Background:

Developing methods to control stem cell differentiation is crucial for tissue engineering.
Previous work utilized inkjet bioprinting for dual-fate differentiation (osteoblasts and myocytes).
The need exists to spatially control multiple stem cell fates simultaneously for multi-tissue regeneration.

Purpose of the Study:

To extend inkjet bioprinting technology for simultaneous spatial control of osteoblast, tenocyte, and myocyte differentiation.
To investigate the role of fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) in directing stem cells toward a tenocyte fate.
To demonstrate the ability to pattern multiple growth factors for multi-lineage differentiation.

Main Methods:

Inkjet-based bioprinting of immobilized solid-phase growth factors (GFs) onto extracellular matrix (ECM) substrates.
Immunofluorescence staining to detect tendon-promoting GFs and differentiation markers (Scleraxis [Scx], α-smooth muscle actin [α-SMA]).
Quantitative PCR (qPCR) to analyze gene expression changes related to FGF-2 signaling pathways (Ets family transcription factors).

Main Results:

Fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) upregulated the tendon marker Scx and downregulated the myofibroblast marker α-SMA in various cell types.
FGF-2 appears to direct stem cells toward a tendon fate through Ets family transcription factors (pea3, erm).
Co-patterning FGF-2 and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) resulted in spatially distinct upregulation of Scx and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) respectively, with spontaneous myotube differentiation in unpatterned areas.

Conclusions:

This bioprinting approach enables precise spatial control over simultaneous multi-phenotype differentiation of stem cells.
The findings highlight FGF-2's potential role in tendon differentiation.
The technology shows promise for the regeneration of complex multi-tissue units.