Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

Counterfactual Thinking01:19

Counterfactual Thinking

Counterfactual thinking is a cognitive process wherein individuals mentally reconstruct alternative versions of past events, often beginning with “what if” or “if only.” This reflective mechanism plays a significant role in shaping emotional experiences and guiding future behavior. Though typically triggered by unfavorable or unexpected outcomes, counterfactual thinking can also emerge in mundane, everyday decisions and experiences, revealing its deep entrenchment in human cognition.Types of...
Hindsight Biases01:12

Hindsight Biases

Hindsight bias leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t. In other words, you knew all along that things would turn out the way they did. Can you relate this to the phrase "Hindsight is 20/20" now?
Magical Thinking01:29

Magical Thinking

Magical thinking encompasses the belief in assumptions that defy logical reasoning yet appear intuitively convincing. It is a common psychological phenomenon that persists across various cultural and individual contexts. While these assumptions contradict empirical evidence and scientific laws, they often serve meaningful psychological roles in promoting emotional resilience and a sense of control, especially under stress or uncertainty.Thought-Action Fusion and the Law of SimilarityA key...
Reason and Intuition01:37

Reason and Intuition

The human brain processes information for decision-making using one of two routes: an intuitive system and a rational system (Epstein, 1994; popularized by Kahneman, 2011 as System 1 and System 2, respectively). The intuitive system is quick, impulsive, and operates with minimal effort, relying on emotions or habits to provide cues for what to do next, while the rational system is logical, analytical, deliberate, and methodical. Research in neuropsychology suggests that the brain can only use...
Criteria for Causality: Bradford Hill Criteria - II01:28

Criteria for Causality: Bradford Hill Criteria - II

The Bradford Hill criteria serve as guidelines for establishing causative links in epidemiological research. Beyond Strength, Consistency, Specificity, and Temporality, key criteria also include Biological Gradient, Plausibility, Coherence, Experiment, and Analogy. These principles assist scientists in assessing the likelihood of causation in complex biological contexts. Below is a summary of these concepts:
Law of Effect01:06

Law of Effect

B.F. Skinner, a prominent figure in behavioral psychology, introduced operant conditioning by emphasizing the role of consequences in shaping behavior. This theory builds upon the law of effect proposed by Edward Thorndike, which posits that behaviors followed by satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated. In contrast, those followed by unsatisfying outcomes are less likely to recur.
Edward Thorndike's foundational work involved studying learning in animals, particularly using puzzle boxes...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Imaginative Thought.

Journal of cognition·2026
Same author

Inference and Imagination.

Topics in cognitive science·2026
Same author

Comparative Analysis of Dual-miRNA Mediated Stimulation of Nucleus Pulposus and Bone Marrow Derived Stem Cells for Intervertebral Disc Repair.

JOR spine·2026
Same author

Restoring disc matrix homeostasis: Dual-miRNA and human platelet lysate as a novel therapeutic strategy.

Materials today. Bio·2026
Same author

Scaffold-mediated miRNA-155 inhibition promotes regenerative macrophage polarisation leading to anti-inflammatory, angiogenic and neurogenic responses for wound healing.

Bioactive materials·2026
Same author

Development of a <i>PTEN</i>-siRNA activated scaffold to promote axonal regrowth following spinal cord injury.

Bioactive materials·2026

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal
06:45

Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal

Published on: April 18, 2017

"If only" counterfactual thoughts about exceptional actions.

James E Dixon1, Ruth M J Byrne

  • 1Trinity College Dublin, University of Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.

Memory & Cognition
|May 7, 2011
PubMed
Summary

People usually imagine changing exceptional actions to be usual. However, research shows people instead imagine changing exceptional actions to better exceptional alternatives when outcomes are improved, challenging prior findings.

Area of Science:

  • Cognitive Psychology
  • Decision Making
  • Counterfactual Thinking

Background:

  • Counterfactual thinking involves mentally simulating alternatives to past events.
  • A common pattern is to "down-grade" exceptional actions to more usual ones to reduce regret.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate whether exceptional actions are always "down-graded" in counterfactual alternatives.
  • To examine the influence of outcome optimality and action justifiability on counterfactual generation.

Main Methods:

  • Five experiments were conducted to test counterfactual imagination.
  • Participants generated counterfactual alternatives to described scenarios involving exceptional actions.

Main Results:

More Related Videos

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language
09:27

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

Published on: October 13, 2018

Exploring the Role of Deontic Reasoning and World Knowledge in Wason&#180;s Selection Task
06:08

Exploring the Role of Deontic Reasoning and World Knowledge in Wason´s Selection Task

Published on: July 22, 2025

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 2, 2026

Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal
06:45

Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal

Published on: April 18, 2017

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language
09:27

Using Eye Movements Recorded in the Visual World Paradigm to Explore the Online Processing of Spoken Language

Published on: October 13, 2018

Exploring the Role of Deontic Reasoning and World Knowledge in Wason&#180;s Selection Task
06:08

Exploring the Role of Deontic Reasoning and World Knowledge in Wason´s Selection Task

Published on: July 22, 2025

  • Experiment 1 confirmed the "down-grading" effect.
  • Experiments 2 and 3 demonstrated a reversal: exceptional actions were changed to better exceptional alternatives when outcomes improved.
  • Experiments 4 and 5 showed this reversal persists regardless of action justifiability.

    • Conclusions:

    • The tendency to "down-grade" exceptional actions is not absolute.
    • Counterfactual imagination prioritizes the optimality of the imagined outcome over the exceptionality or justifiability of the action.
    • Findings refine theories of counterfactual thinking and decision-making under uncertainty.