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Related Concept Videos

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form the...
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Degenerative Disc Disease I: Introduction

Degenerative disc disease is a chronic condition in which intervertebral discs gradually lose structure and function. It is not infectious or autoimmune; rather, it results from age-related biochemical and mechanical changes, influenced by genetic, metabolic, and environmental factors.Structure and Function of DiscsThe spine contains 23 intervertebral discs that absorb load, distribute forces, maintain spacing, and allow flexibility. Each disc consists of a nucleus pulposus, a gel-like core...
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Degenerative Disc Disease ll: Pathophysiology

The symptoms of degenerative disc disease arise from a combination of mechanical compression, vascular compromise, and biochemical inflammation, which together disrupt nerve function and produce pain.Mechanical CompressionDisc degeneration reduces height and elasticity, predisposing to herniation of the nucleus pulposus, a major cause of radicular pain. Herniations may be protrusion (bulging with intact annulus), extrusion (nucleus extends beyond disc but remains connected), or sequestration...
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Osteoclasts in Bone Remodeling

Osteoclasts are cells responsible for bone resorption and remodeling. They originate from hematopoietic progenitor cells present in the bone marrow. Numerous progenitor cells fuse to form multinucleated cells, each with 10-20 nuclei. A single osteoclast has a diameter of 150 to 200 µM. These cells have ruffled borders that break down the underlying bone tissue and release minerals such as calcium into the blood in bone resorption. Osteoclasts cling to bones with their ruffled edges during bone...
Overview of the Axial Skeleton01:09

Overview of the Axial Skeleton

The skeleton is subdivided into two major divisions—the axial skeleton and the appendicular skeleton. The axial skeleton forms the vertical, central axis of the body. It includes all of the bones of the head, neck, chest, and back. It protects the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs. It also serves as the attachment site for muscles that move the head, neck, and back and for muscles that act across the shoulder and hip joints to move their corresponding limbs.
The axial skeleton of the adult...
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Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 31, 2026

Modified Posterior Vertebral Column Resection for Patients with Thoracolumbar Kyphotic Deformity
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Scheuermann's kyphosis; current controversies.

A I Tsirikos1, A K Jain

  • 1Scottish National Spine Deformity Centre, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Sciennes Road, Edinburgh EH9 1LF, UK. atsirikos@hotmail.com

The Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. British Volume
|June 28, 2011
PubMed
Summary

Scheuermann

Area of Science:

  • Orthopedics
  • Spinal Surgery
  • Pediatric Orthopedics

Background:

  • Scheuermann's kyphosis is a spinal deformity with debated pathogenesis and natural history.
  • Most patients experience symptom resolution and deformity stabilization by skeletal maturity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current understanding of Scheuermann's kyphosis.
  • To investigate controversies in conservative and surgical treatment approaches.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of Scheuermann's kyphosis.
  • Analysis of conservative (observation, exercise, bracing) and surgical (spinal fusion) treatment outcomes.

Main Results:

  • Mild, flexible deformities benefit from observation and exercise.

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  • Bracing is suitable for moderate, flexible deformities in growing patients, with potential for correction loss.
  • Severe, progressive kyphosis may require surgical fusion to prevent pain, cosmetic issues, and neurological complications.

    • Conclusions:

    • Treatment selection for Scheuermann's kyphosis depends on deformity severity, flexibility, and patient growth.
    • Evidence supports conservative management for mild cases and surgical intervention for severe, progressive deformities.
    • Further research is needed to establish consensus on optimal surgical techniques and instrumentation.