Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Antibiotic Selection

Antibiotic Selection

Bacterial Transformation

Bacterial Transformation

In 1928, bacteriologist Frederick Griffith worked on a vaccine for pneumonia, which is caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria. Griffith studied two pneumonia strains in mice: one pathogenic and one non-pathogenic. Only the pathogenic strain killed host mice.
Griffith made an unexpected discovery when he killed the pathogenic strain and mixed its remains with the live, non-pathogenic strain. Not only did the mixture kill host mice, but it also contained living pathogenic bacteria that...

Evolution of New Traits in Microbes

Evolution of New Traits in Microbes

Microorganisms evolve rapidly due to their large population sizes and short generation times, often exhibiting measurable changes within days under laboratory conditions. Natural selection acts on standing genetic variation, enabling the retention and amplification of beneficial traits that confer fitness advantages in changing environments.Adaptive Pigment Regulation in RhodobacterIn Rhodobacter, a genus of purple non-sulfur bacteria, light-harvesting pigments such as bacteriochlorophyll and...

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

Genome Size and the Evolution of New Genes

While every living organism has a genome of some kind (be it RNA, or DNA), there is considerable variation in the sizes of these blueprints. One major factor that impacts genome size is whether the organism is prokaryotic or eukaryotic. In prokaryotes, the genome contains little to no non-coding sequence, such that genes are tightly clustered in groups or operons sequentially along the chromosome. Conversely, the genes in eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of non-coding sequence.

Transduction

Transduction

Among the three main modes of HGT—transformation, conjugation, and transduction—transduction is unique in that it is mediated by bacteriophages, or bacterial viruses.Transduction occurs in two ways. Generalized transduction occurs during the lytic cycle of a bacteriophage infection. In this process, bacteriophages infect bacterial cells, replicate within them, and ultimately cause cell lysis, releasing newly assembled virions. Occasionally, random fragments of the bacterial genome are...

Evolution of Microbial Genome

Evolution of Microbial Genome

Microbial genome evolution is a highly dynamic process shaped by continual gene gain and loss across species and strains. This genomic flexibility allows microorganisms to adapt rapidly to environmental pressures and interactions with other organisms. Central to understanding this diversity is the distinction between the core and pan genomes.The core genome comprises the genes shared by all sampled strains of a species, representing essential functions needed for fundamental cellular processes.

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Specificity and exon target space of splicing modifying compounds.

Nature communications·2026

Same author

Essential Contributions of Ribose and Nucleobases to the Nucleophilic Reactivity of RNA 2'-OH Groups.

Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany)·2026

Same author

A SMUG1 Inhibitor Modulates the Excision of Pyrimidine DNA Damage.

ACS medicinal chemistry letters·2026

Same author

Protocol for covalent RNA labeling by RiboLight dyes for detection by in-gel fluorescence and fluorescence microscopy.

STAR protocols·2026

Same author

Correction to "DNA Content and DNA Damage in Raw and Heat-Processed Foods".

Journal of agricultural and food chemistry·2026

Same author

Protocol for covalent RNA labeling by RiboLight dyes for detection by in-gel fluorescence and fluorescence microscopy.

STAR protocols·2026

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 28, 2026

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

Published on: November 16, 2012

Encoding phenotype in bacteria with an alternative genetic set.

Andrew T Krueger¹, Larryn W Peterson, Jijumon Chelliserry

¹Department of Chemistry, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5080, United States.

Journal of the American Chemical Society

|October 11, 2011

Summary

Researchers created a synthetic genetic system (xDNA) with larger base pairs that functions like natural DNA in living cells. This unnatural DNA successfully encoded amino acids, demonstrating a new synthetic biology capability.

More Related Videos

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Published on: November 12, 2012

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Published on: September 1, 2018

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 28, 2026

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

Engineering Adherent Bacteria by Creating a Single Synthetic Curli Operon

Published on: November 16, 2012

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Mapping Bacterial Functional Networks and Pathways in Escherichia Coli using Synthetic Genetic Arrays

Published on: November 12, 2012

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Producing Gene Deletions in Escherichia coli by P1 Transduction with Excisable Antibiotic Resistance Cassettes

Published on: September 1, 2018

Area of Science:

Synthetic Biology
Molecular Biology
Genetics

Background:

Natural DNA relies on specific base pairing (A-T, G-C) for genetic information storage.
Expanding DNA's size and architecture could enable novel biological functions and synthetic systems.
Previous efforts in synthetic genetics faced challenges in stability and biological integration.

Purpose of the Study:

To evaluate the functionality of an unnatural base-pair architecture (xDNA) in encoding genetic information within living cells.
To determine if xDNA can be replicated and transcribed, leading to functional protein expression.
To investigate the cellular mechanisms involved in the replication and processing of xDNA.

Main Methods:

Construction of plasmids containing single and multiple xDNA base pairs within a green fluorescent protein gene.
Transformation of modified plasmids into Escherichia coli.
Analysis of colony formation, gene expression (fluorescence), and DNA replication in modified cells and repair-deficient mutants.

Main Results:

Plasmids with xDNA, though yielding fewer colonies, successfully directed the synthesis of green fluorescent protein.
All four xDNA bases (xA, xC, xG, xT) paired correctly and were replicated within the plasmid DNA.
Experiments with repair-deficient mutants confirmed that cellular polymerases read and processed xDNA, not DNA repair mechanisms.

Conclusions:

A biologically functioning synthetic genetic system with a larger-than-natural base-pair architecture (xDNA) has been demonstrated.
xDNA can be replicated and transcribed in E. coli, encoding amino acids and producing functional proteins.
Cellular polymerases play a crucial role in the accurate replication and processing of this novel synthetic genetic material.