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Goiter

Goiter

Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 23, 2026

A Swin Transformer-Based Model for Thyroid Nodule Detection in Ultrasound Images

A Swin Transformer-Based Model for Thyroid Nodule Detection in Ultrasound Images

Published on: April 21, 2023

Thyroid nodules.

Geanina Popoveniuc¹, Jacqueline Jonklaas

¹Division of Endocrinology, Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington, DC 20007, USA.

The Medical Clinics of North America

|March 27, 2012

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Thyroid nodules require careful evaluation due to cancer risk. Serum thyrotropin, ultrasound, and fine-needle aspiration biopsy are key diagnostic tools for managing nodules and thyroid cancer.

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A Swin Transformer-Based Model for Thyroid Nodule Detection in Ultrasound Images

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Published on: April 21, 2023

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

An Orthotopic Mouse Model of Anaplastic Thyroid Carcinoma

Published on: April 17, 2013

Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Oncology
Diagnostic Imaging

Background:

Thyroid nodules are frequent and carry potential for malignancy.
Accurate diagnosis is crucial for appropriate patient management.
Current evaluation strategies involve hormonal assays and imaging.

Purpose of the Study:

To outline an approach for the evaluation and management of various thyroid nodules.
To discuss diagnostic tools for assessing malignancy risk.
To cover therapeutic options for benign nodules and thyroid cancer during pregnancy.

Main Methods:

Review of serum thyrotropin levels.
Utilization of thyroid ultrasonography for nodule assessment.
Performance of fine-needle aspiration biopsy for cytological diagnosis.

Main Results:

Fine-needle aspiration biopsy is the most accurate method for diagnosing malignancy.
A systematic approach aids in managing single, functioning, multinodular, incidental nodules, and cysts.
Therapeutic interventions are available for benign nodules.

Conclusions:

Effective management of thyroid nodules relies on a combination of clinical assessment, hormonal evaluation, and targeted biopsy.
Early and accurate diagnosis improves outcomes for patients with thyroid nodules and cancer.
Specific considerations are needed for thyroid cancer diagnosed during pregnancy.