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Related Concept Videos

Contingency Table01:29

Contingency Table

A contingency table provides a way of portraying data that can facilitate calculating probabilities. It is a method of displaying a frequency distribution as a table with rows and columns to show how two variables may be dependent (contingent) upon each other; The table helps determine conditional probabilities quite quickly and can help systematically organize, analyze and quantify data. The table displays sample values concerning two variables that may be dependent or contingent on one...
Continuity of a Function01:23

Continuity of a Function

A function is continuous at a point a if three conditions are met: the function is defined at a, the limit of the function as x approaches a exists, and this limit equals the function’s value. Mathematically, this is written asThis definition ensures the graph of the function does not exhibit any breaks, holes, or jumps at that point. Discontinuities occur when any of these conditions fail. A removable discontinuity exists when the two-sided limit exists but the function is either undefined or...
Determination of Expected Frequency01:08

Determination of Expected Frequency

Suppose one wants to test independence between the two variables of a contingency table. The values in the table constitute the observed frequencies of the dataset. But how does one determine the expected frequency of the dataset? One of the important assumptions is that the two variables are independent, which means the variables do not influence each other. For independent variables, the statistical probability of any event involving both variables is calculated by multiplying the individual...
Variability: Analysis01:11

Variability: Analysis

Measures of variability are statistical metrics that reveal the dispersion pattern within a dataset. They are pivotal in biostatistics, providing insights into the heterogeneity within health and biological data. Variability signifies the degree to which data points diverge from one another, helping researchers understand the potential range of values and associated uncertainty within the data.
The range is a simple measure of variability, indicating the difference between the highest and...
Introduction to Test of Independence01:21

Introduction to Test of Independence

In statistics, the term independence means that one can directly obtain the probability of any event involving both variables by multiplying their individual probabilities. Tests of independence are chi-square tests involving the use of a contingency table of observed (data) values.
The test statistic for a test of independence is similar to that of a goodness-of-fit test:
Improper Integrals: Discontinuous Integrands01:28

Improper Integrals: Discontinuous Integrands

Evaluating Areas Under Curves with DiscontinuitiesA definite integral is considered improper when the integrand is discontinuous at one of the limits of integration. This occurs when the function is undefined or becomes infinite at an endpoint, making the corresponding region under the curve unbounded. Such behavior is commonly associated with vertical asymptotes at the boundary of the interval. To properly define and evaluate these integrals, a limiting process is used to determine whether a...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 23, 2026

Measuring the Subjective Value of Risky and Ambiguous Options using Experimental Economics and Functional MRI Methods
13:04

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Published on: September 19, 2012

Differing views of contingencies: How contiguous?

K A Lattal, T A Shahan

    The Behavior Analyst
    |April 6, 2012
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Behavioral and cognitive science share the concept of contingency, but differ on its mechanism. Behavior analysts emphasize direct effects and discriminative stimuli, while cognitive views focus on detection and interpretation.

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    Task Interruption and Resumption Paradigm for Testing the Activation and Pursuit of an Abstract Thinking Goal

    Published on: April 18, 2017

    Area of Science:

    • Behavioral Science
    • Cognitive Science
    • Psychology

    Background:

    • The concept of contingency, the relationship between environmental events and behavior, is central to understanding both behavior and cognition.
    • While the definition of contingency is shared across disciplines, interpretations of its underlying mechanisms diverge.
    • Behavior analysis posits direct response-strengthening effects and discriminative functions, whereas cognitive psychology emphasizes detection and interpretation.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To explore the conceptual commonalities and differences in the understanding of contingency between behavior analysis and cognitive psychology.
    • To examine the relevance of different theoretical accounts of contingency to empirical research.
    • To bridge the gap between behavioral and cognitive perspectives on contingency.

    Main Methods:

    • Conceptual analysis of existing literature in behavior analysis and cognitive psychology.
    • Comparison of theoretical frameworks, including those of Bower and Watson.
    • Examination of quantitative descriptions of contingency effects.

    Main Results:

    • Behavior analysts view contingency as acting directly on behavior and as a discriminative stimulus.
    • Cognitive accounts, particularly Watson's, highlight the organism's detection and interpretation of contingency.
    • Watson's quantitative models of contingency effects align with feedback functions in reinforcement schedules.

    Conclusions:

    • Despite differing theoretical underpinnings, both behavioral and cognitive perspectives offer valuable insights into contingency.
    • Watson's work provides a quantitative bridge, suggesting implications for research on reinforcement schedules and superstitious behavior.
    • Further research integrating these perspectives can enhance our understanding of behavior-environment interactions.