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Related Concept Videos

Immune Response Against Viral Pathogens01:29

Immune Response Against Viral Pathogens

The immune system's response to viral infections is a complex and coordinated process involving natural killer (NK) cells, T cell-mediated responses, and antibody-mediated responses.
NK Cells
NK cells are a crucial part of our innate immune system, acting as the first line of defense against viral infections. These cells can recognize and kill infected cells without prior exposure to the virus, effectively slowing down the spread of infection. Additionally, NK cells produce proinflammatory...
Viral Mutations00:36

Viral Mutations

A mutation is a change in the sequence of bases of DNA or RNA in a genome. Some mutations occur during replication of the genome due to errors made by the polymerase enzymes that replicate DNA or RNA. Unlike DNA polymerase, RNA polymerase is prone to errors because it is not capable of “proofreading” its work. Viruses with RNA-based genomes, like HIV, therefore accrue mutations faster than viruses with DNA-based genomes. Because mutation and recombination provide the raw material for adaptive...
Viral Structure00:56

Viral Structure

Viruses are extraordinarily diverse in shape and size, but they all have several structural features in common. All viruses have a core that contains a DNA- or RNA-based genome. The core is surrounded by a protective coat of proteins called the capsid. The capsid is composed of subunits called capsomeres. The capsid and genome-containing core are together known as the nucleocapsid.
Size and Structure of Viral Genomes01:26

Size and Structure of Viral Genomes

Viral genomes exhibit remarkable diversity in size, structure, and composition, influencing their replication strategies and interactions with host cells. These genomes consist of either DNA or RNA and may be linear or circular. Additionally, they can be single-stranded or double-stranded, with each configuration affecting how the virus propagates within a host. RNA viruses, for instance, generally have smaller genomes than DNA viruses, a factor that contributes to their high mutation rates and...
The Antiviral System of Bacteria and Archaea: CRISPR01:23

The Antiviral System of Bacteria and Archaea: CRISPR

CRISPR stands for Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats is a adaptive immune system found in bacteria and archaea that protects against viral infections. This system enables prokaryotic cells to identify, remember, and neutralize foreign genetic elements, primarily bacteriophages, by storing fragments of the invader’s DNA as a genetic memory.The CRISPR immune response begins during an initial infection. Cas (CRISPR-associated) proteins play a central role in this defense.
Viral Recombination00:57

Viral Recombination

Cells are sometimes infected by more than one virus at once. When two viruses disassemble to expose their genomes for replication in the same cell, similar regions of their genomes can pair together and exchange sequences in a process called recombination. Alternatively, viruses with segmented genomes can swap segments in a process called reassortment.

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Updated: May 18, 2026

Arbovirus Infections As Screening Tools for the Identification of Viral Immunomodulators and Host Antiviral Factors
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Arbovirus Infections As Screening Tools for the Identification of Viral Immunomodulators and Host Antiviral Factors

Published on: September 13, 2018

Evolutionary conflicts between viruses and restriction factors shape immunity.

Nisha K Duggal1, Michael Emerman

  • 1Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98109, USA.

Nature Reviews. Immunology
|September 15, 2012
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Host restriction factors are intracellular antiviral defenses. Viral evolution creates an ongoing arms race, meaning our immune systems better fight old viruses than new ones, explaining modern viral susceptibility.

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Dissecting Innate Immune Signaling in Viral Evasion of Cytokine Production
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Dissecting Innate Immune Signaling in Viral Evasion of Cytokine Production
08:32

Dissecting Innate Immune Signaling in Viral Evasion of Cytokine Production

Published on: March 2, 2014

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Virology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Host restriction factors are intracellular proteins that inhibit viral replication and are key to innate immunity.
  • Viruses have evolved antagonistic mechanisms to overcome these host defenses, leading to an evolutionary arms race.
  • This co-evolutionary dynamic shapes the interplay between host immunity and viral pathogenesis.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the evolutionary history of host restriction factors.
  • To understand how this evolutionary trajectory influences host susceptibility to contemporary viral infections.
  • To elucidate the role of innate immunity in the context of viral evolution.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative genomics analysis of restriction factor genes across species.
  • Phylogenetic reconstruction of restriction factor evolution.
  • Correlation analysis between evolutionary patterns and known host-virus interactions.

Main Results:

  • Host restriction factors and viral antagonists have undergone rapid, co-evolutionary changes.
  • Vertebrate innate immune systems are largely shaped by ancient viral pressures.
  • Evidence suggests a mismatch between ancient immune optimization and modern viral threats.

Conclusions:

  • The evolutionary history of host restriction factors provides a framework for understanding current viral susceptibility.
  • Ancient viral pressures have shaped innate immunity, potentially leaving modern hosts vulnerable to novel viruses.
  • Understanding this evolutionary arms race is crucial for predicting and combating emerging viral diseases.