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Related Concept Videos

Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development01:30

Socioemotional Experience and Gender Development

Social-emotional experiences and cultural influences play significant roles in shaping gender development. During middle childhood, from ages 6 to 11, peer groups become dominant in reinforcing gender norms. Children in this age group often align with same-gender peer groups, which actively encourage behaviors that conform to traditional gender roles. For instance, boys may be discouraged from engaging in activities perceived as feminine, reinforcing culturally dictated norms about masculinity...
The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes02:45

The Ratio of X Chromosome to Autosomes

In most organisms, sex is determined by the ratio of X and Y chromosomes. However, in some organisms, such as Drosophila and C.elegans, sex is determined by the ratio of the number of X chromosomes to the number of sets of autosomes. The Y chromosome in Drosophila is active but does not determine sex. It contains genes responsible for the production of sperms in adult flies.  
Normal male Drosophila has a ratio of one X chromosome to two sets of autosomes. In contrast, normal female Drosophila...
Development of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus01:15

Development of the Sexual Organs in the Embryo and Fetus

Development of the reproductive organs in an embryo starts from a bipotential state. This means the early embryo can develop either male or female reproductive organs. The formation of these organs begins with the growth of gonadal ridges that arise from the intermediate mesoderm during the fifth week of development.
Near the gonadal ridges, two duct systems are present: the mesonephric ducts (Wolffian ducts) and paramesonephric ducts (Müllerian ducts). These ducts form the basis for the male...
Dosage Compensation02:50

Dosage Compensation

In animals, gender is determined by the number and type of sex chromosome. For example, human females have two X chromosomes, and males have one X and one Y chromosome, whereas C.elegans with one X chromosome is a male, and the one with two X chromosomes is a hermaphrodite.
In addition to sexual development, the X chromosome has genes involved in autosomal functions such as brain development and the immune system. Therefore, males and females with  distinct numbers of X chromosomes will have...
Sex Linked Disorders01:43

Sex Linked Disorders

Like autosomes, sex chromosomes contain a variety of genes necessary for normal body function. When a mutation in one of these genes results in biological deficits, the disorder is considered sex-linked.
Sex-linked Disorders01:43

Sex-linked Disorders

Like autosomes, sex chromosomes contain a variety of genes necessary for normal body function. When a mutation in one of these genes results in biological deficits, the disorder is considered sex-linked.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 17, 2026

Social Defeat Stress Model for Adolescent C57BL/6 Male and Female Mice
07:15

Social Defeat Stress Model for Adolescent C57BL/6 Male and Female Mice

Published on: March 15, 2024

Sex differences in developmental programming models.

Catherine E Aiken1, Susan E Ozanne

  • 1Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The Rosie Hospital and NIHR Cambridge Comprehensive Biomedical Research Centre, University of Cambridge, PO Box 223, Cambridge CB2 0SW, UK. cema2@cam.ac.uk

Reproduction (Cambridge, England)
|October 20, 2012
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Adverse early development can program diseases like metabolic syndrome. Sex differences in offspring outcomes are common, with males often more affected, possibly due to unequal maternal energy investment.

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Area of Science:

  • Developmental Biology
  • Reproductive Medicine
  • Endocrinology

Background:

  • Developmental programming theory links early life exposures to later disease.
  • Suboptimal intrauterine environments are studied across species for phenotypic outcomes.
  • Complexity in developmental programming research hinders definitive conclusions.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore sex differences in offspring outcomes within developmental programming models.
  • To investigate the basis for more prominent adverse effects in male offspring.
  • To review evidence on unequal maternal energy investment between male and female conceptuses.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on developmental programming models.
  • Analysis of studies involving dietary, hypoxic, and surgical interventions.
  • Examination of molecular and phenotypic outcomes in male and female offspring.

Main Results:

  • Sex differences in offspring outcomes are a recurring theme in developmental programming.
  • Adverse in utero conditions frequently yield more pronounced effects in males.
  • Evidence suggests potentially unequal maternal energy investment in male versus female conceptuses.

Conclusions:

  • Male and female development may represent distinct processes from conception.
  • Differences in developmental timing and outcomes exist between sexes.
  • Further research is needed to understand the basis of sex-specific programming.