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T Cell Types and Functions

When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain parenchyma caused by direct viral invasion or immune-mediated mechanisms triggered by infections or tumors. Both processes lead to neuronal injury, disrupted neurotransmission, and diverse neurological symptoms, often with overlapping clinical and pathological features.Autoimmune EncephalitisIn autoimmune encephalitis, antibodies target neuronal antigens on cell surfaces, synapses, or within neurons. A key example is anti-NMDAR encephalitis, which can...
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Updated: May 10, 2026

Measuring Psoriasis Severity at Home
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Published on: March 1, 2024

Enthesitis in psoriatic arthritis.

Lazaros I Sakkas1, Ioannis Alexiou, Theodora Simopoulou

  • 1Department of Rheumatology, School of Health Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, Greece; Center for Molecular Medicine, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA.

Seminars in Arthritis and Rheumatism
|June 5, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Enthesitis and dactylitis are key features of psoriatic arthritis (PsA). Early detection and evaluation using advanced imaging and indices are crucial for assessing disease progression and guiding treatment strategies in PsA patients.

Keywords:
AssessmentDactylitisEnthesitisMagnetic resonance imagingPsoriasisPsoriatic arthritisTNFα inhibitorsTreatmentUltrasonography

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Published on: October 6, 2023

Area of Science:

  • Rheumatology
  • Immunology
  • Dermatology

Background:

  • Enthesitis is a clinically significant manifestation in psoriatic arthritis (PsA).
  • Dactylitis is a characteristic and frequent feature of PsA, often indicating disease progression.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current data on the detection, assessment, and treatment of enthesitis and dactylitis in PsA.
  • To highlight the importance of these conditions in clinical trials and practice.

Main Methods:

  • Systematic literature search of PubMed using keywords related to psoriatic arthritis, enthesitis, enthesopathy, and treatment/imaging.
  • Selection of 157 relevant papers for review.

Main Results:

  • Enthesitis is common in PsA, potentially asymptomatic or painful, impacting function and quality of life.
  • Advanced imaging (ultrasonography, MRI) shows enthesitis as an early inflammatory site in PsA.
  • Enthesitis indices are valuable for clinical trials; dactylitis is prognostic.
  • Treatments include NSAIDs, DMARDs, local steroids, and TNFα inhibitors for refractory cases.

Conclusions:

  • Enthesitis and dactylitis are critical PsA manifestations.
  • Evaluation of enthesitis and dactylitis is increasingly integrated into drug trials and clinical management of PsA.