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Related Concept Videos

Radical Reactivity: Electrophilic Radicals01:02

Radical Reactivity: Electrophilic Radicals

Radicals adjacent to electron‐withdrawing groups are called electrophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with nucleophilic alkenes. For example, the malonate radical, in which the radical center is flanked by two electron‐withdrawing groups, reacts readily with butyl vinyl ether, which consists of an electron‐donating oxygen substituent. The reaction between electrophilic malonate radical and nucleophilic vinyl ether is favored because the radical has a low‐energy SOMO, which interacts...
Radical Reactivity: Nucleophilic Radicals01:16

Radical Reactivity: Nucleophilic Radicals

Radicals adjacent to electron-donating groups are called nucleophilic radicals. These radicals readily react with electrophilic alkenes. The SOMO–LUMO interactions are the driving force for the reaction, where the high-energy SOMO of the electron-rich, nucleophilic radicals interacts with the low-energy LUMO of the electron-deficient, electrophilic alkenes. Such SOMO–LUMO interactions are the basis of reactive radical traps, affecting the selectivity in radical reactions. For instance, consider...
Radical Reactivity: Overview01:11

Radical Reactivity: Overview

Radicals, the highly reactive species, gain stability by undergoing three different reactions. The first reaction involves a radical-radical coupling, in which a radical combines with another radical, forming a spin‐paired molecule. The second reaction is between a radical and a spin‐paired molecule, generating a new radical and a new spin‐paired molecule. The third reaction is radical decomposition in a unimolecular reaction, forming a new radical and a spin‐paired molecule. These three...
Reactivity of Enols01:18

Reactivity of Enols

Enols are a class of compounds where a hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon–carbon double bond, which implies that it is a vinyl alcohol. A carbonyl compound with an α hydrogen undergoes keto–enol tautomerism and remains in equilibrium with its tautomer, the enol form. Usually, the keto tautomer is present in a higher concentration than the enol tautomer due to the higher bond energy of C=O compared to C=C. Moreover, the direction of the keto–enol equilibrium is governed by factors like...
Relative Reactivity of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives01:13

Relative Reactivity of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

Carboxylic acid derivatives such as acid halides, anhydrides, esters, and amides undergo nucleophilic acyl substitution reactions with varying degrees of reactivity.
A key factor in assessing the reactivity of the acid derivatives is the basicity of the substituent or the leaving group. The lower the basicity of the leaving group, the higher the reactivity of the derivative. The basicity of the leaving group follows this order:
Halide ions < Acyloxy ions < Alkoxy ions < Amine ions
Radical Reactivity: Concentration Effects01:20

Radical Reactivity: Concentration Effects

In a radical reaction, the concentration of starting materials governs the selectivity of a radical. For example, the reaction between an alkyl halide and an alkene, in the presence of tin hydride and AIBN, begins with the generation of a tin radical. The generated radical then abstracts halogen from the alkyl halide, producing an alkyl radical. This alkyl radical can either react with tin hydride, yielding an alkane, or add to an alkene, generating a nitrile-stabilized radical, eventually...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 10, 2026

Measurement of T Cell Alloreactivity Using Imaging Flow Cytometry
09:04

Measurement of T Cell Alloreactivity Using Imaging Flow Cytometry

Published on: April 19, 2017

Alloreactivity.

Sidonia B G Eckle1, Jamie Rossjohn, James McCluskey

  • 1Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia.

Methods in Molecular Biology (Clifton, N.J.)
|June 19, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

The major histocompatibility complex (MHC) triggers a strong alloimmune response, posing a significant barrier to transplantation. Research clarifies T cell receptor recognition of MHC-peptide complexes, explaining high alloreactive T cell frequencies.

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Last Updated: May 10, 2026

Measurement of T Cell Alloreactivity Using Imaging Flow Cytometry
09:04

Measurement of T Cell Alloreactivity Using Imaging Flow Cytometry

Published on: April 19, 2017

Determining the Reactivity and Titre of Serum using a Haemagglutination Assay
05:59

Determining the Reactivity and Titre of Serum using a Haemagglutination Assay

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06:46

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Published on: June 21, 2017

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Transplantation Science
  • Structural Biology

Background:

  • Alloimmune responses, driven by genetic disparities in major histocompatibility complex (MHC) antigens, present a major obstacle in organ and stem cell transplantation.
  • The high frequency of alloreactive T cells appears paradoxical, contrasting with the MHC restriction typically required for T cell-mediated immunity.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the molecular and structural underpinnings of T cell receptor (TCR) recognition of MHC-peptide complexes.
  • To explain the immunological paradox of T cell-mediated alloreactivity and the high prevalence of alloreactive T cells.

Main Methods:

  • Crystallographic analyses of T cell receptor (TCR) interactions.
  • Experimental studies using murine CD8(+) cytolytic T cell clones.

Main Results:

  • Significant advances in understanding the molecular basis of TCR recognition of MHC-peptide complexes.
  • Structural insights into the mechanisms driving T cell-mediated alloreactivity.
  • Provided a mechanistic explanation for the elevated frequencies of alloreactive T cells compared to those recognizing microbial antigens.

Conclusions:

  • The study clarifies the structural and molecular basis of T cell alloreactivity.
  • Offers a rationale for the high frequency of alloreactive T cells, crucial for improving transplantation outcomes.