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Updated: Dec 23, 2025

Dissection and Flat-mounting of the Threespine Stickleback Branchial Skeleton
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Digit loss in archosaur evolution and the interplay between selection and constraints.

Merijn A G de Bakker1, Donald A Fowler, Kelly den Oude

  • 1Department of Integrative Zoology, Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Sylvius Laboratory, Sylviusweg 72, 2333BE Leiden, the Netherlands.

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|July 9, 2013
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Summary

Evolutionary digit loss in crocodiles and birds reveals developmental vestiges persist long after adult digits disappear. Conserved gene networks in hindlimb digit V contrast with the rapid loss of wing digit I, highlighting developmental constraints versus selection pressures.

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary developmental biology
  • Comparative genomics
  • Tetrapod limb evolution

Background:

  • Evolutionary digit loss is influenced by natural selection and developmental constraints.
  • Extant archosaurs (crocodiles, birds) exhibit varied digit numbers due to selective pressures.
  • Lost digits can persist as embryonic vestiges for millions of years.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the developmental basis of digit loss in Nile crocodiles and five bird species.
  • To understand the role of gene expression and developmental constraints in limb evolution.
  • To explore the mismatch between embryonic and adult phenotypes during digit loss.

Main Methods:

  • Examined digit development markers across three successive stages in selected species.
  • Analyzed gene expression patterns, including sonic hedgehog (Shh), Hoxd11, Hoxd12, Gli3, and Alx4.
  • Compared digit persistence and gene expression in wing digit I and hindlimb digit V.

Main Results:

  • Wing digit I and its developmental markers were lost in two independent lineages.
  • Hindlimb digit V persisted as cartilage and Sox9-expressing precartilage domains in all sampled species.
  • Conserved posterior gene networks (Hoxd11, Hoxd12) were observed even in species with reduced digit numbers, while anterior genes (Gli3, Alx4) showed variation.

Conclusions:

  • Hindlimb digit V persistence may be due to conserved posterior gene networks and developmental constraints (Zone of Polarizing Activity-associated networks).
  • Wing digit I's rapid loss might stem from ZPA-independent specification and weaker developmental constraints.
  • A model integrating developmental constraints and selection pressures explains diverse tetrapod digit loss patterns and informs how adult selection impacts development.