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Related Concept Videos

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology01:27

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...
Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction01:25

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...
The Parathyroid Glands00:59

The Parathyroid Glands

The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by producing...
Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology01:24

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor, and heat...
Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology01:23

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...
Hormones and Bone Tissue01:17

Hormones and Bone Tissue

The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones, which interact with the skeletal system. These hormones control bone growth, maintain bone once it is formed, and remodel it.
Hormones That Influence Osteoblasts and/or Maintain the Matrix
Several hormones are necessary for controlling bone growth and maintaining the bone matrix. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), which, as its name implies, controls bone growth. This happens in several ways: first, it triggers chondrocyte...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 9, 2026

Generation of Hypoparathyroid Rats via Carbon-Nanoparticle-Assisted Parathyroidectomy
03:57

Generation of Hypoparathyroid Rats via Carbon-Nanoparticle-Assisted Parathyroidectomy

Published on: July 14, 2023

Lithium-associated hyperparathyroidism and hypercalcaemia: a case-control cross-sectional study.

Umberto Albert1, David De Cori1, Andrea Aguglia1

  • 1Department of Neuroscience, Anxiety and Mood Disorders Unit, University of Turin, Italy.

Journal of Affective Disorders
|July 23, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Lithium treatment for bipolar disorder may increase parathyroid hormone and calcium levels, indicating potential parathyroid stimulation. Monitoring calcium and parathyroid hormone is recommended during lithium therapy.

Keywords:
Bipolar disorderCalciumHyperparathyroidismLithium

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 9, 2026

Generation of Hypoparathyroid Rats via Carbon-Nanoparticle-Assisted Parathyroidectomy
03:57

Generation of Hypoparathyroid Rats via Carbon-Nanoparticle-Assisted Parathyroidectomy

Published on: July 14, 2023

Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Psychiatry
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Lithium is a first-line treatment for Bipolar Disorder (BD).
  • Known side effects include thyroid and renal alterations.
  • Effects on parathyroid glands are less understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare parathyroid hormone (PTH) and calcium levels in BD patients exposed to lithium versus those never exposed.
  • To investigate the association between lithium exposure and parathyroid function.

Main Methods:

  • A case-control cross-sectional study involving 112 BD patients (58 lithium-exposed, 54 controls).
  • Blood tests included PTH, ionized calcium, TSH, T3, T4, creatinine, urea, electrolytes, and serum lithium levels.
  • Statistical analyses used Student's t-test, Pearson's Chi-square test, and linear regression.

Main Results:

  • Lithium-exposed patients showed significantly higher PTH and ionized calcium levels.
  • Higher proportions of hyperparathyroidism (8.6%) and hypercalcaemia (24.1%) were observed in the lithium group.
  • Linear regression indicated lithium exposure duration correlated with ionized calcium but not PTH levels.

Conclusions:

  • Lithium-associated parathyroid stimulation appears more common than previously thought.
  • The study could not determine the exact timing of hyperparathyroidism onset due to its design.
  • Calcium and potentially PTH levels should be monitored before and during long-term lithium treatment.