Cardiovascular disease in women: contraceptive issues and nonvalvular cardiovascular disease

Several reproductive issues affect cardiovascular risk in women. Polycystic ovary syndrome is common and may include menstrual irregularities, hirsutism, and metabolic symptoms. Patients with this syndrome have an increased risk of impaired glucose tolerance and dyslipidemia. Hysterectomy is a common gynecologic surgery that may affect estrogen levels in women. There are conflicting data on the cardiovascular risk associated with estrogen use in women after a hysterectomy. Human papillomavirus is a newly identified risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), but the mechanism and effect are still unknown. Contraceptives are the most commonly used prescription drugs among women in the United States. The absolute risk of CVD in young women is low; therefore, the threefold increase in risk that is associated with contraceptives is still low. Estrogen is thought to be the primary concern related to the increased cardiovascular risk associated with combined oral contraceptives. Contraceptive pills also may affect insulin, lipid, and blood pressure levels.