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Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

A hydrogen bond is formed when a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (for example, the oxygen in the water molecule) is attracted to another electronegative atom from another polar molecule, such as water (H2O), hydrogen fluoride (HF), or ammonia (NH3). The huge electronegativity difference between the H atom (2.1) and the atom to which it is bonded (4.0 for an F atom, 3.5 for an O atom, or 3.0 for an N atom), combined with the very small size of an H atom...

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen Bonds

Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between atoms that have formed other chemical bonds. One of these atoms is electronegative, like oxygen, and has a partial negative charge. The other is a hydrogen atom that has bonded with another electronegative atom and has a partial positive charge.
Hydrogen Bonds Control the World!
Because hydrogen has very weak electronegativity when it binds with a strongly electronegative atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen, electrons in the bond are unequally shared.

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals I

The mathematical expression known as the wave function, ψ, contains information about each orbital and the wavelike properties of electrons in an isolated atom. When atoms are bound together in a molecule, the wave functions combine to produce new mathematical descriptions that have different shapes. This process of combining the wave functions for atomic orbitals is called hybridization and is mathematically accomplished by the linear combination of atomic orbitals. The new orbitals that...

Alkyl Halides

Alkyl Halides

Structural Properties
Alkyl halides are halogen-substituted alkanes wherein one or more hydrogen atoms of an alkane is replaced by a halogen atom such as fluorine, chlorine, bromine, or iodine. The carbon atom in an alkyl halide is bonded to the halogen atom, which is sp3-hybridized and exhibits a tetrahedral shape.
Unlike alkyl halides, compounds in which a halogen atom is bonded to an sp2 -hybridized carbon atom of a carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) are called vinyl halides. Whereas aryl...

Valence Bond Theory

Valence Bond Theory

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Valence Bond Theory

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Coordination compounds and complexes exhibit different colors, geometries, and magnetic behavior, depending on the metal atom/ion and ligands from which they are composed. In an attempt to explain the bonding and structure of coordination complexes, Linus Pauling proposed the valence bond theory, or VBT, using the concepts of hybridization and the overlapping of the atomic orbitals. According to VBT, the central metal atom or ion (Lewis acid) hybridizes to provide empty orbitals of suitable...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 8, 2026

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

From Molecules to Materials: Engineering New Ionic Liquid Crystals Through Halogen Bonding

Published on: March 24, 2018

Amplified halogen bonding in a small space.

Mohammed G Sarwar¹, Dariush Ajami, Giannoula Theodorakopoulos

¹The Skaggs Institute for Chemical Biology and Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute , 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States.

Journal of the American Chemical Society

|September 5, 2013

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Researchers used encapsulation techniques to directly observe weak halogen bonding interactions. This method prolongs molecular encounters within confined spaces, enabling detailed characterization via NMR spectroscopy.

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Area of Science:

Supramolecular Chemistry
Chemical Physics

Background:

Weak intermolecular forces, like halogen bonds, are challenging to study in solution due to transient molecular interactions and solvent interference.
Confined environments, such as enzyme active sites or synthetic capsules, can stabilize molecular complexes by prolonging and pre-arranging encounters, isolating them from bulk solvent effects.

Purpose of the Study:

To demonstrate the utility of encapsulation techniques for the direct observation and characterization of weak halogen bonding.
To overcome the limitations of studying transient interactions in bulk solution.

Main Methods:

Employing encapsulation techniques to create confined environments for molecular interactions.
Utilizing Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy for detailed characterization of the encapsulated complex.

Main Results:

Successful direct observation of halogen bonding within a confined space.
Amplification of interaction strength due to increased local concentrations and favorable alignment within the capsule.
Characterization of the weak interaction using conventional NMR methods, which would be negligible in bulk solvent.

Conclusions:

Encapsulation provides a powerful strategy to stabilize and study weak intermolecular forces like halogen bonding.
This approach enables detailed analysis of interactions under conditions not feasible in conventional solution-phase studies.
The findings open avenues for investigating other weak interactions in tailored microenvironments.