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Many human characteristics, like height, are shaped by both nature—in other words, by our genes—and by nurture, or our environment. For example, chronic stress during childhood inhibits the production of growth hormones and consequently reduces bone growth and height. Scientists estimate that 70-90% of variation in height is due to genetic differences among individuals, and 10-30% of variation in height is due to differences in the environments that individuals experience,...
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
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Organisms that are well-adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. However, natural selection does not lead to perfectly adapted organisms. Several factors constrain natural selection.
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Vascularized Composite Upper Limb Allograft Harvesting for Proximal Arm Allotransplantation
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Why we cannot grow a human arm.

John L Ricci1

  • 1Department of Biomaterials and Biomimetics, New York University College of Dentistry, 345 E. 24th Street, New York, NY, USA, John.Ricci@nyu.edu.

Journal of Materials Science. Materials in Medicine
|October 12, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Growing a full human arm is currently impossible due to challenges in vascularization, nerve regeneration, and ethical concerns. Advanced prosthetics offer a more viable solution for limb restoration.

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Area of Science:

  • Biomedical Engineering
  • Regenerative Medicine
  • Neuroscience

Background:

  • Current tissue engineering can produce some human arm components.
  • Significant hurdles exist in scaling up tissue growth and ensuring adequate blood and nerve supply.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To evaluate the feasibility of growing a complete human arm using tissue and genetic engineering.
  • To identify the primary challenges and limitations in current regenerative medicine approaches for limb development.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of current capabilities in tissue engineering for organoid growth.
  • Review of genetic engineering techniques for developmental pathway activation.
  • Assessment of challenges in re-innervation for functional limb integration.

Main Results:

  • Tissue engineering limitations in vascularization and scale hinder large-volume tissue growth.
  • Genetic engineering faces insurmountable ethical issues and technical barriers for limb development outside a fetus.
  • Successful re-innervation of a grown or transplanted arm remains a critical, unresolved challenge.

Conclusions:

  • Growing a complete, functional human arm via tissue or genetic engineering is not feasible in the near future.
  • Significant technical, cost, and ethical obstacles, particularly re-innervation, prevent arm regeneration.
  • Advanced neuroelectronic prosthetics represent a more achievable and near-term solution for limb restoration.