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The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of two malleus (hammer) bones, two incus (anvil) bones, and two stapes (stirrups), one on each side. These bones develop during the fetal stage and are the ones to ossify first. They are fully mature at birth and do not grow afterward.
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Updated: May 6, 2026

Hemi-laryngeal Setup for Studying Vocal Fold Vibration in Three Dimensions
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Complex vibratory patterns in an elephant larynx.

Christian T Herbst1, Jan G Svec, Jörg Lohscheller

  • 1Laboratory of Bio-Acoustics, Department of Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna, Althanstraße 14, 1090 Wien, Austria.

The Journal of Experimental Biology
|October 18, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Elephant larynx vibrations produce low-frequency sounds through complex oscillations. Researchers documented unique traveling waves and phase delays in an African elephant larynx, differing significantly from human vocal fold dynamics.

Keywords:
excised larynx experimenthigh-speed videolarynx anatomytransverse travelling wavevestibular foldsvocal fold vibrationvoice production

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Area of Science:

  • Bioacoustics
  • Comparative Anatomy
  • Vibrational Mechanics

Background:

  • Elephant low-frequency vocalizations result from laryngeal tissue oscillations.
  • Detailed understanding of vibratory phenomena in the elephant larynx is limited.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To describe complex oscillatory features in an excised African elephant larynx.
  • To compare elephant laryngeal anatomy with human anatomy.
  • To investigate the mechanisms behind elephant sound production.

Main Methods:

  • High-speed video, acoustic, airflow, and sound pressure level recordings of sound production.
  • Computed tomography (CT) and dissection for laryngeal anatomy analysis.
  • Comparative anatomical study with human larynx.

Main Results:

  • Observed unusual phenomena including phase delays (inferior-superior, anterior-posterior) and anterior-posterior traveling waves.
  • Acoustic energy generation primarily during glottal opening.
  • Vestibular folds contributed to vibration, increasing sound pressure level by 12 dB.
  • Elephant larynx anatomy is distinct from human, not merely a scaled version.

Conclusions:

  • Elephant laryngeal anatomy contributes to complex vibratory phenomena.
  • Traveling waves may be influenced by low fundamental frequencies and increased vocal fold tension.
  • A traveling wave model is proposed to explain observed vibration patterns.