Haploid genomes illustrate epigenetic constraints and gene dosage effects in mammals

Sequencing projects have revealed the information of many animal genomes and thereby enabled the exploration of genome evolution. Insights into how genomes have been repeatedly modified provide a basis for understanding evolutionary innovation and the ever increasing complexity of animal developmental programs. Animal genomes are diploid in most cases, suggesting that redundant information in two copies of the genome increases evolutionary fitness. Genomes are well adapted to a diploid state. Changes of ploidy can be accommodated early in development but they rarely permit successful development into adulthood. In mammals, epigenetic mechanisms including imprinting and X inactivation restrict haploid development. These restrictions are relaxed in an early phase of development suggesting that dosage regulation appears less critical. Here we review the recent literature on haploid genomes and dosage effects and try to embed recent findings in an evolutionary perspective.