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$X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples$ 01:10

X-ray Diffraction of Biological Samples

X-ray diffraction or XRD is an analytical tool that utilizes X-rays to study ordered structures such as crystalline organic and inorganic samples, polycrystalline materials, proteins, carbohydrates, and drugs.
According to Bragg's law, when X-rays strike the sample positioned on a stage, the rays are scattered by the electron clouds around the sample atoms. The X-ray diffraction or scattering is caused by constructive interference of the X-ray waves that reflect off the internal...

Determination of Crystal Structures

Determination of Crystal Structures

In the late 1800s, the revelation that light extended beyond visible wavelengths led to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Roentgen. Recognized as high-energy electromagnetic radiation with short wavelengths, X-rays prompted exploration into their interaction with crystals. Max von Laue proposed in 1912 that the periodic arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in crystals would cause them to diffract X-rays, a hypothesis confirmed through experiments with copper sulfate and zinc sulfide...

X-ray Crystallography

X-ray Crystallography

The size of the unit cell and the arrangement of atoms in a crystal may be determined from measurements of the diffraction of X-rays by the crystal, termed X-ray crystallography.
Diffraction
Diffraction is the change in the direction of travel experienced by an electromagnetic wave when it encounters a physical barrier whose dimensions are comparable to those of the wavelength of the light. X-rays are electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths about as long as the distance between neighboring...

$Interference and Diffraction$ 02:18

Interference and Diffraction

Interference is a characteristic phenomenon exhibited by waves. When two electromagnetic waves interact with their peaks and troughs coinciding, a resulting wave with enhanced amplitude is produced. This is known as constructive interference. In this case, the two waves interacting are in phase with each other.

The de Broglie Wavelength

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In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a table will behave like a particle; it will continue traveling in a straight line unless it collides with another ball, or it is acted on by some other force, such as friction. The ball has a well-defined position and velocity or well-defined momentum, p = mv, which is defined by mass m and velocity v at any given moment. This is the typical...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

$X-ray Powder Diffraction in Conservation Science: Towards Routine Crystal Structure Determination of Corrosion Products on Heritage Art Objects$

X-ray Powder Diffraction in Conservation Science: Towards Routine Crystal Structure Determination of Corrosion Products on Heritage Art Objects

Published on: June 8, 2016

Powder diffraction: what's in a name?

Robert B Von Dreele¹

¹APS, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 S. Cass Ave., Lemont, IL 60439-4814, USA.

Acta Crystallographica. Section C, Crystal Structure Communications

|December 7, 2013

Summary

Powder diffraction has advanced significantly, moving from metal studies to complex protein structures. This technique is now at the forefront of crystallography, a field now proposed to be called polycrystallography.

Keywords:

Rietveld refinement polycrystallography powder diffraction

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Last Updated: May 5, 2026

$X-ray Powder Diffraction in Conservation Science: Towards Routine Crystal Structure Determination of Corrosion Products on Heritage Art Objects$

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Published on: January 16, 2017

Area of Science:

Crystallography
Materials Science
Structural Biology

Background:

Powder diffraction is a well-established technique in materials science.
Its application has expanded significantly beyond traditional uses.

Purpose of the Study:

To trace the historical development of powder diffraction.
To highlight its current advanced applications in crystallography.
To propose a new term for these modern endeavors.

Main Methods:

Historical review of powder diffraction techniques.
Analysis of current applications in crystallography, including protein structures.

Main Results:

Powder diffraction has evolved substantially over time.
It is now a cutting-edge method in crystallography.
The technique is successfully applied to determine protein crystal structures.

Conclusions:

Powder diffraction represents a major advancement in crystallography.
The term 'polycrystallography' is proposed to encompass these advanced applications.