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Related Concept Videos

Ovarian Cycle01:27

Ovarian Cycle

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The menstrual cycle includes a critical component known as the ovarian cycle, which undergoes two main phases each month—the follicular phase and the luteal phase. The follicular phase is variable and averaging around 14 days. Ovulation, triggered by a surge in luteinizing hormone (LH), marks the transition between the two phases. The second phase, the luteal phase, is relatively consistent, lasting approximately 14 days, and is marked by the activity of the corpus luteum. While a cycle...
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Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle01:30

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

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The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
Before puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a low frequency, low amplitude pulsatile manner. This along with the immature hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, results in low estrogen levels and the absence of a fully functional ovarian cycle.  At puberty, GnRH secretion increases in both frequency and...
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Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

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The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH...
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Gonadal and Placental Hormones01:24

Gonadal and Placental Hormones

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The gonads, namely the testes in males and the ovaries in females, are pivotal in producing gonadal hormones that orchestrate the intricate processes of sexual development and reproduction.
In males, testosterone is the primary gonadal androgen. It plays a central role in the maturation of male reproductive organs — the penis and testes. Additionally, testosterone is instrumental in the development of secondary sexual characteristics — a deep voice as well as facial and pubic hair...
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Proliferative Phase01:20

Proliferative Phase

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The proliferative phase typically occurs after menstruation and lasts between 6 to 13 days in a standard 28-day cycle. This phase involves the reconstruction of the endometrium, guided by estrogen produced by the developing ovarian follicle.
Notably, the stratum basale, the basal layer of the endometrium, including the basal parts of the uterine glands, remains unaffected by menstruation. Stem cells in this layer undergo mitosis, regenerating the stratum functionalis and thickening the...
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Oogenesis02:07

Oogenesis

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In human women, oogenesis produces one mature egg cell or ovum for every precursor cell that enters meiosis. This process differs in two unique ways from the equivalent procedure of spermatogenesis in males. First, meiotic divisions during oogenesis are asymmetric, meaning that a large oocyte (containing most of the cytoplasm) and minor polar body are produced as a result of meiosis I, and again following meiosis II. Since only oocytes will go on to form embryos if fertilized, this unequal...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 3, 2026

Multiplexed Fluorescent Immunohistochemical Staining of Four Endometrial Immune Cell Types in Recurrent Miscarriage
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Multiplexed Fluorescent Immunohistochemical Staining of Four Endometrial Immune Cell Types in Recurrent Miscarriage

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Endocrine basis for recurrent pregnancy loss.

Raymond W Ke1

  • 1Assisted Reproduction, Fertility Associates of Memphis, 80 Humphreys Center, Suite 307, Memphis, TN 38120, USA.

Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America
|February 5, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Endocrine disorders like luteal phase defect, hypothyroidism, and PCOS can cause miscarriage. Treatment with progestogen, thyroid hormone replacement, or weight normalization/metformin may improve pregnancy outcomes for affected women.

Keywords:
HyperprolactinemiaLuteal phase defectPolycystic ovary syndromeRecurrent pregnancy lossThyroid antibodiesThyroid disease

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Area of Science:

  • Reproductive Endocrinology
  • Obstetrics and Gynecology

Background:

  • Endocrinopathies are frequently implicated in spontaneous and recurrent pregnancy loss.
  • Conditions such as luteal phase defect (LPD), hypothyroidism, and polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) are associated with increased miscarriage risk.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the impact of common endocrinopathies on miscarriage.
  • To discuss the management strategies for improving pregnancy outcomes in women with these conditions.

Main Methods:

  • Review of literature on endocrinopathies and pregnancy loss.
  • Analysis of treatment outcomes for LPD, hypothyroidism, and PCOS.

Main Results:

  • Progestogen treatment in early pregnancy may benefit patients with recurrent pregnancy loss and LPD.
  • Thyroid hormone replacement therapy in hypothyroid patients is linked to improved pregnancy outcomes.
  • Weight normalization or metformin use in PCOS patients appears to reduce pregnancy loss risk.

Conclusions:

  • Addressing underlying endocrine disorders is crucial for managing recurrent miscarriage.
  • Targeted therapies for LPD, hypothyroidism, and PCOS can improve reproductive success.